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Ericksen died on the 6th, in the hut. He was buried in the river, and a board with his name was stuck in the river-bank abreast of his grave. A Winchester rifle, some ammunition, and a record were left in the hut, and the party again moved on. The last of the dog-meat and the last of the tea were used for breakfast. Some old tea-leaves and 2 quarts alcohol were all that remained. Towards night, Alexey obtained a ptarmigan, and with this soup was made. Breakfast on the 8th consisted of 1 oz. alcohol in a pint of hot water. Dinner and supper were the same.
On the 9th October, Nindemann and Noros were sent ahead for relief. They carried their blankets, one rifle, 40 rounds ammunition, and 2 oz. alcohol. The remainder of the party followed an hour afterwards. During the march they all broke through the ice, and were wet up to the knees. They stopped and built fires, and tried to dry their clothes. Alexey shot three ptarmigans, with which they made soup. For supper they had only half an ounce of alcohol.
On the 10th October the last of the alcohol was taken for breakfast, and they began to eat deer-skin scraps of clothing. Lee showed signs of collapsing, and wished to be left. For supper they had a spoonful of glycerine. “All hands weak and feeble, but cheerful.”
On the 11th there was a gale of wind with snow, and they were unable to move. On the 12th the last of the glycerine was taken for breakfast. For dinner they tried two handfuls of Arctic willow infused in water. On the 13th willow-tea was again taken. On the 14th, Alexey shot a ptarmigan, and soup was made. On the 15th the willow-tea was again repeated, and two old boots were eaten.
All this time they were hoping to hear from Nindemann and Noros. On the 16th October, Alexey broke down, and died on the 17th. After this, no food was obtained. Lee and Kaack died on the 21st, Iversen on the 28th, Dressler on the 29th, Görtz on the 30th October. On the latter date Collins was dying. Here the record of De Long ceases. The doctor and Ah Sam must still have been alive.
It will now be convenient to follow the fortunes of Nindemann and Noros, who were sent for relief. During their first march, on the 9th October, Nindemann shot a ptarmigan, which served for their dinner. At night they made a fire, drank willow-tea, and tried to obtain a little nourishment from a burned boot-sole; then wrapping themselves in their blankets, they lay down near the fire. For breakfast next morning they had a little willow-tea and another boot-sole. Their course along the main stream was a confused morass, and they were hindered by a high wind and drifting snow. At night they made a hole in a snow-drift, in which they camped. The wind was so high that although there was driftwood, a fire could not be lighted. At noon on the 11th they stopped and kindled a fire, meaning to heat a little of the alcohol which they carried; but Noros, who had it in his pocket, found the bottle broken and the alcohol lost. They had therefore to fall back on willow-tea and boot-sole. At night they reached a hut in which they found some deer-bones. A fire was kindled and the bones charred, and an effort was made to eat them. Next morning a gale was blowing, and nothing could be seen but drifting snow. They had therefore to remain in the hut. The journey was resumed on the 13th. A hut was seen on the opposite bank of the river, and an attempt was made to cross the thin ice. They repeatedly went through up to their waists, but finally succeeded in gaining the bank. Noros while searching for firewood found a box containing two fish. Nindemann was fortunate enough to seize a lemming, and on this and the fish they made their supper. The fish were almost rotten, but they were soon devoured. Next day they made a start, but were driven back by drifting snow to the hut, where they stayed another twenty-four hours.
On the morning of the 15th October another start was made along the river-bank. The night was passed in a kind of cave at the side of the river. Their supper consisted of a piece of seal-skin pantaloons, which was soaked in water and then burned to a crust. They passed a wretched night. Next day they made for some hills they saw in the distance. No willow could be found, and a piece of seal-skin was their only food. They passed the night in a ravine, where they dug a hole in the snow.
On the 17th they struggled over streams and sand-spits, and had again to pass the night in a hole in the snow. The wind was too high to allow a fire, and it was too cold to allow sleep. On the 18th they reached a ruined hut almost filled with snow. They cleared out sufficient to give them sleeping-room, and after taking some willow-tea and a piece of seal-skin, they lay down for the night. On the 19th they were so weak that they had to rest about every five minutes. In the afternoon they reached three huts, and in one of them was a kayak containing something like sawdust. It was blue-moulded and tasteless, but it was believed to be fish. As they found nothing more, they ate it, and soon after they had an attack of dysentery. They stayed in the hut all day, and on the 21st found themselves too weak to move farther.
On the 22nd October they heard a noise outside, and Nindemann, when he looked through a crack in the door, saw something move, and thought it was a reindeer. He took down the rifle and was moving to the door when it opened, and at the entrance stood a man. Seeing Nindemann with the rifle, he expected to be shot, and immediately fell on his knees and began to supplicate. Nindemann threw the rifle down and beckoned eagerly to the man to come in. After some hesitation, the stranger entered, and the two men, anxious to be friendly, offered him some of the fish. He shook his head, and made signs that it was not fit to eat. Nindemann and Noros went out, and found that the man had come in a sleigh with reindeer; but there was nothing to eat. He gave Nindemann a pair of deer-skin boots and a deer-skin, and in return Nindemann gave him a shirt. The man made signs that he would require to go, and held up three or four fingers to indicate that he would return. Whether he meant in three or four hours, or three or four days, they could not tell.
About 6 p.m. the man returned with two others, and brought a frozen fish which he skinned and sliced. They also brought some deer-skin coats and boots for them, and then made signs that Nindemann and Noros were to go with them. The latter made various attempts to make the natives understand the critical condition of De Long and party, but utterly failed. Putting Nindemann and Noros into the sleighs, they drove off with them along the river to the westwards. They kept on their drive for about 15 miles, when they came to a couple of deer-skin tents. Here Nindemann and his companion received boiled venison. The natives numbered seven men and three women. One of the women gave Nindemann water in order that he might wash, but as he found himself unable to use it, she took pity on him and washed his face. Again attempts were made to make the natives understand about the party, but it was impossible to say how far they were understood. Next day over one hundred head of deer were harnessed to twenty-seven sleighs loaded with reindeer meat, skins, and fish, and driven over the mountains to the southward. About the end of the second day they came to a collection of huts, Ku Mark Surka, where there was a great crowd of people feasting. On the following day, the 25th October, Nindemann made another desperate attempt to make himself understood. A model of a boat was produced, and using sticks, Nindemann showed that the ship had masts and yards, and that it was a steamer. He then made models of the ship’s boats. Obtaining two pieces of ice, he showed how the ship had been crushed. He next put in each little boat so many sticks to represent the men in each boat. He then showed a chart of the ocean and coast-line, and tried to explain how the boats were separated in a gale. He showed the way they had walked along the river, and by putting his head down and closing his eyes he tried to explain how many days the rest of the party had been left. Sometimes they seemed to be able to follow him, but no assistance was offered.
Next day an incessant but fruitless attempt to make themselves understood was made. On the 27th October, Nindemann could contain himself no longer, and broke into sobs and groans. A woman in the hut took pity on him, and began talking earnestly to one of the men, who came to Nindemann and said something about a commandant. Late in the evening, a tall Russian, whom Nindemann took to be the commandant, arrived, but he understood neither English nor German. He evidently, however, knew something of affairs, for he uttered two words, “Jeannette,” “Americansk.” Noros, meanwhile, was in the hut writing out an explanatory note which Nindemann and he had composed, and the Russian picked this up and put it in his pocket, and refused to return it.
On the morning of the 28th they were taken charge of by a man who was to take them to Bulun, where they arrived on the 29th October. Here they saw the commandant, who turned out to be a different individual from the one previously seen. He seemed to understand Nindemann’s signs and pantomimes, and spoke of telegraphing. Nindemann made signs for pen, ink, and paper, and dictated to Noros a dispatch to the American Minister at St. Petersburg. This was taken by the commandant, who said he would leave with it next morning.
A hut was assigned to them, and on the 2nd November, three days after the commandant had gone off with their dispatch, they were electrified by the arrival of Melville.
We must now leave Nindemann and Noros, and return to Melville’s party in the whale-boat. It consisted of Melville, Danenhower, Newcomb, Cole, Leach, Wilson, Bartlett, Lauterbach, Tong Sing, Aneguin, and Manson.
On the night of the 12th September, Melville lost sight of the other two boats, and contrived to ride out the gale. He then ran all night of the 13th, to the west and south-west. On the morning of the 14th the boat grounded in 2 feet of water, and there was no land in sight. By running some distance to the east, deeper water was obtained, but it was not until the morning of the 16th that land was sighted, consisting of two low headlands forming the mouth of a large river. They ascended the river and tried to effect a landing, but the shoals constantly prevented it. Towards night a hut was seen, and they succeeded in making a landing near it. The boat was hauled up, and a fire was kindled. The men were scarcely able to walk. During four days of their rough passage they had no water to drink, and their legs were terribly cramped. After working up the river two more days, they came to a collection of huts where they met three natives, and feasted on venison, goose, and fish. They endeavoured to get the natives to pilot them to Bulun, but failed. Next day they pushed on, but were forced to return to the huts. The head-man of the village had, in the meantime, arrived, and Melville induced him to agree to pilot the party to Bulun. They started on the 22nd September, and on the 26th reached a village where he was informed that it was a journey of sixteen days to Bulun. Melville insisted on being taken there, and an attempt was made; but after struggling with the ice and against the wind, they had to return to the village. They were given a hut and an allowance of provisions. Melville prepared a telegram to the Secretary of the Navy and to the American Minister at St. Petersburg, and letters were written in several languages. The head-man of the village undertook to send these forward.
About the 10th October there came to the village a Russian exile, who seemed more intelligent than the others. This was the man who later fell in with Nindemann and Noros, and who was first mistaken for the commandant. He arranged with Melville to go to Bulun and bring reindeer teams for the transportation of the party, as well as food and clothing. He returned on the 29th October, when Melville had almost given him up, and he brought the note from Nindemann and Noros. As soon as Melville heard that De Long and his party were in need of assistance, he started by dog-team for Bulun, which he reached on the 2nd November, as already related.
Melville now arranged for Danenhower to take charge of the party while he started north in search of De Long. He was absent twenty-three days, and during that time he travelled 663 miles, but although he recovered the log-books and other articles cached, and found several of the records left in the huts, he failed to find the bodies. Winter had now set in severely, and the search had to be given up.
No news had yet been heard of Chipp’s party, and it may here be mentioned that no trace of them was ever found. It is probable that the boat went down in the gale.
Early in the year of 1882, Melville began preparations to renew the search in the spring. He received instructions from the American Government to spare no expense. Food and clothing were transported from Yakutsk to the Lena Delta, a distance of over 1500 miles. Melville had Nindemann and Bartlett to assist him when he started for his second search on the 16th March. On the 23rd March the bodies were found. De Long, Dr. Ambler, and Ah Sam, the three who lived longest, were found lying together.
Melville ascertained that the whole of this district, at certain seasons of the year, was under water, and he therefore had the bodies removed some distance to the south, where he had them buried on a rock about 300 or 400 feet high.
A long search was now made for Chipp and his party, but, as already mentioned, no trace of them was found.
During 1883 the American Government appropriated the sum of 25000 dollars for the purpose of having the bodies conveyed from the Lena Delta to America and for a further search to be made for the missing boat. This was carried out by Lieutenant Harber, of the U.S.N.
The fate of this expedition was one of the saddest in the history of Arctic exploration. It achieved little in the way of discovery, but yet, as will be hereafter explained, the loss of the Jeannette had an important bearing on a future expedition which was destined to add greatly to our knowledge of the Arctic regions.
CHAPTER IX
GREELY’S EXPEDITION (1881−84)
Lieutenant Weyprecht, of the Austro-Hungarian Expedition, at the meeting of the German Scientific and Medical Association, at Gratz, in September 1875, presented a plea for systematic Polar exploration and research.
A Commission, appointed by Prince Bismarck to consider the question, strongly commended the plan to the Bundesrath and to all interested nations.
The Turko-Russian War delayed the question until 1879, when an International Polar Conference met at Hamburg in October. At this Conference twelve stations were agreed upon, one of which was to be in the Archipelago of North America.
The United States did not at first take any action in the matter, but ultimately they decided that the Signal Service should form a Polar station at Lady Franklin Bay, and carry out the programme outlined by the Hamburg Polar Conference.
A sum of 25000 dollars was appropriated for the expedition, and Lieutenant Greely was appointed to the command. He was instructed to establish the station near Lady Franklin Bay and contiguous to the coal-seam discovered by the English Expedition of 1875. The steamer on arrival at the station was to discharge her cargo and then return to St. John’s, Newfoundland. Lieutenant Greely was also instructed that it was contemplated that the station would be visited in 1882 and in 1883 by a steamer, sailing, or other vessel, by which supplies as would be deemed needful would be sent. In case the vessel was unable to reach the station in 1882, she was to cache a portion of her supplies at the most northerly point attained on the east coast of Grinnell Land. In case no vessel reached the station in 1882, the vessel sent in 1883 was to remain in Smith Sound until there was danger of its closing by ice, and, on leaving, was to land all her supplies and a party at Littleton Island. This party was to be prepared for a winter’s stay, and was to be instructed to send sledge-parties up the east side of Grinnell Land to meet Greely’s party.
If not visited in 1882, Lieutenant Greely was to abandon his station not later than 1st September 1883, and to retreat southward by boat, following closely the east coast of Grinnell Land until the relieving vessel was met or Littleton Island reached.
The arrangements promised in these instructions to Greely are of great importance in the light of subsequent events.
The steamer Proteus was selected to convey the party to Lady Franklin Bay. She was a barkentine-rigged steamer of oak with two compound engines, 110 horse-power, 467 tons register, had an iron-armed prow, and was sheathed with iron-wood from above the water-line to below the turn of the bilge. Her screw was self-lifting, she had spare rudder and propeller, and was in every respect suitable for ice-navigation. The charter of this vessel consumed over ¾ of the appropriation, leaving less than 6000 dollars for the special outfit of the party.
The master of the Proteus, Richard Pike, had for many years been engaged in the seal fishery of the Labrador ice, and was one of the most experienced captains and ice-navigators of Newfoundland.
Greely’s party, numbering twenty-three men in all, left St. John’s, Newfoundland, on 7th July 1881. Lieutenant Kislingbury was the second in command, and Lieutenant Lockwood was third. Dr. Pavy, the surgeon of the expedition, had spent the preceding year in Greenland, and joined the party at Godhavn.
Gales and thick weather delayed the Proteus, and the island of Disco, at Godhavn, was not reached until the 15th July. Twelve dogs with a supply of dog-food were purchased here, and the Proteus again sailed on 21st July. Some more dogs with food and other supplies were obtained at Ritenbenk, and a considerable number of sea-birds were shot and hung up in the rigging to dry. At Upernavik two Eskimo were engaged: Thorlip Frederik Christiansen, aged thirty-five, and Jens Edward, aged thirty-eight.
From the Berry Islands a direct course was laid for Cape York, which was sighted on the 31st July. Melville Bay had been found almost clear of ice, and was crossed in the remarkably short period of thirty-six hours.
The Carey Islands were reached on the 1st of August, and the cairn erected by Sir George Nares in 1875, and also the dépôt of 3600 rations, were examined. On the whole, the dépôt was still in good condition.
A quantity of coal was landed on the extreme south-western point of Littleton Island, and the mail landed by Sir Allen Young for the English Expedition was discovered at the extreme northern end of the west coast.
To the northward from Littleton Island the sea was entirely free from ice, and Greely decided not to touch at Cape Sabine, but to shape a course for Cape Hawks. The dépôt left here by the English was visited, and, with the exception of a portion of the bread, was found to be in good condition. As Greely was short of boats, he took on with him the English jolly-boat.
The cairn on Washington Irving Island was searched, and the record of Nares was taken, and a copy left with a new record giving a brief account of the expedition to date. Near Cape Frazer the first palæocrystic floeberg was seen. A cache of 200 lb. of meat and 280 lb. of bread was left at Carl Ritter Bay. Greely points out that the indentation here is so slight, and the curve so great, that it is a bight rather than a bay. The south-eastern part of Lady Franklin Bay was reached on the 4th August, but here a heavy pack was met, and it was not until the 11th that the Proteus entered Discovery Harbour.
On entering the harbour, eleven musk-oxen were seen. They were immediately followed, and all were shot. It was found that the Proteus could not safely approach Watercourse Bay, and Greely therefore decided to make his station on the shore of Discovery Harbour, near the quarters of the English Expedition.
The site for a house was soon chosen, and the unloading of the vessel was proceeded with. The station was named “Conger,” after Senator Conger, who had interested himself specially in behalf of the expedition. In addition to the general supplies, 130 tons of coal were landed.
Greely records that, on the 25th August, Lieutenant Kislingbury, the second in command, spent the day on the Proteus, and next day, dissatisfied with the expeditionary regulations, requested that he be relieved from duty with the expedition. His request was granted, and he was ordered to report himself to the Chief Signal Officer on his return to the States. However, just as Lieutenant Kislingbury was leaving the station, the Proteus got under way, and he was obliged to go back to Conger. He did not afterwards return to duty as an officer. Greely gives no explanation of the matter, but Lockwood in his diary states that one of the annoyances complained of by Kislingbury was the rule that officers should rise in the morning with the men.
A wooden house was constructed, 60 by 17 feet. Its walls were double, the two coverings of ½-inch boards being separated by an air-space of about a foot. The roof was only a single board thick, but was covered (like the sides) with tar-paper. The house had also a ceiling, and the space between this and the roof afforded an excellent storage-place for articles which would have been injured by exposure. The interior of the house was divided into three rooms, one 17 by 15 feet for the officers, another 8 by 17 feet served partly as the cook’s kitchen and partly as an entry, and the third room was used by the men. The house was conveniently and pleasantly situated within 30 yards of the water’s edge, on a small tableland between two brooks, which for a few months in the year ran into the sea. The coal-mine was 4 miles distant, and could be reached through a valley to the eastward.
The house had not been quite finished when field-work commenced. Greely expresses the view that autumn sledging should be carefully planned, attempted with great caution, and never pushed to great distances. He states that in autumn temperatures the travelling-gear of a man once wet, the chances of dangerous frost-bites and disaster increase.
On 30th August Dr. Pavy and Sergeant Rice, the photographer of the expedition, were sent north as far as practicable towards Cape Joseph Henry. They were to examine the condition of the English dépôt at Lincoln Bay, and report on the practicability of autumn and spring travelling by sledge along the Grinnell Land coast. They travelled with packs, carrying a dog-tent, blankets, and provisions to last them as far as the English dépôt, where their supplies could be renewed.
The dépôt at Lincoln Bay was missed in going north, and the party pushed on to Cape Union before returning south. Here a channel of open water, 2 miles wide, was seen to stretch as far northward as the eye could reach. In returning, the dépôt at Lincoln Bay was discovered, and was found to be in bad order. Greely recommends that water-tight cases of very light tin should be used in protecting stores thus cached.
Sergeant Rice, who had broken through the young ice on his way north, was attacked on the way south by acute rheumatism. In spite of the severe pain, he made a determined attempt to walk to the station, but was ultimately forced to yield. The doctor made him as comfortable as possible in the tent, and proceeded to Conger for assistance. A party of men with a sledge and improvised stretcher was immediately dispatched, and after considerable difficulty Rice was conveyed to the station. He rapidly recovered, and ten days later was again in the field.
During Dr. Pavy’s absence, Greely established a large supply dépôt near Cape Beechy. On 7th September, Greely visited the Bellows, a valley about 15 miles from the station. Ten eider ducks were obtained, and nine out of fourteen musk-cattle were killed.
Dr. Pavy, with Private Whisler and Eskimo Jens, left the station on 2nd October to proceed to Cape Joseph Henry and lay out along the Grinnell Land coast such dépôts of provisions as would facilitate spring travel in that direction. A point near Mount Parry was ultimately reached, and here 150 lb. of pemmican and 50 lb. bread were cached. The open condition of the floe-ice in Robeson Channel prevented further advance. Conger was again reached on the 9th.
On the 10th October, Lockwood established a small dépôt near Cape Baird. On the 13th September a large pack of wolves made their appearance, and for some time they were a source of danger. Greely decided to attempt to poison them, and ultimately succeeded in poisoning four. The rest then disappeared for that season.
On 17th September the first birthday occurred, and the occasion was taken to inaugurate a practice, which was afterwards adhered to at Conger, of exempting the man from duty and of allowing him to select the dinner.
The temperature fell below zero on the 20th September, which Greely believed was the earliest date on record. The first star at midnight was seen on 9th September, and so extremely rapid is the approach of darkness in all very high latitudes that on the 8th October lamps had to be used throughout the twenty-four hours, except for an hour at midday.
Scientific observations were conducted regularly and very carefully at Conger during the whole stay of the expedition. Some idea of the amount of labour involved may be conveyed by the statement that the number of observations recorded daily was as follows: Meteorological, 234; tidal, 28; magnetical, 264 – aggregating 526 daily. On what were called term-days the number of magnetical observations was increased to over 1200. Pendulum, time, and sound experiments were also made.
As regards food-supply, the expedition was fortunate in being able to obtain sufficient musk-meat to enable each man to have 1 lb. daily during two years at Conger. Condensed milk, butter, and oatmeal had been taken in large quantities, and there was a liberal supply of cheese, macaroni, and condensed eggs. They had also a large amount of fruits and vegetables. Tomatoes were found to be the best vegetable, and apples and peaches were considered the best fruits. One ounce of limejuice was issued to each man daily.
Even after the disappearance of the sun, it was decided to continue sledging work. On 23rd October, Lockwood and three men were sent to Dépôt “B,” at Cape Beechy, to construct a large commodious snow-house for the use of the sledge-parties. About 4 cwt. of coal from Watercourse Mine was taken as fuel to be used in a small stove. At Dépôt “A,” at Cape Murchison, about 3000 lb. of coal, also from the mine, was accumulated.
On 3rd November, Lockwood with seven men left the station to attempt to cross Robeson Channel from Cape Beechy. Next day Dr. Pavy, Lieutenant Kislingbury, Sergeant Rice, and Eskimo Jens, with two dog-sledges, left to add stores to the dépôt in Wrangel Bay. This latter party succeeded in adding a small quantity of stores to the dépôt, but Lockwood was unsuccessful in his attempt to cross Robeson Channel, owing to the open condition of the straits.
The results of these winter journeys satisfied Greely that it was not advisable to send sledge-parties to any considerable distance after the sun has left or before its return. The sun was last seen at the station on 14th October, and again reappeared on 28th February, 137 days later. Very dark nights were, however, uncommon, and except on a few cloudy and stormy days they were never prevented by darkness from taking their regular exercise.
During October a wall of ice, 6 feet high, was constructed some 3 feet from the house, and was rendered windproof by a coating of wet snow. The space between the house and the wall was later filled in with loose, dry snow, which formed an excellent protection.
As regards clothing, Greely came to the conclusion that for ordinary use first-class woollen under-garments, with heavy woollen clothing, are all that is essential in Arctic service.
In December a number of men gave indications of being mentally affected by the continual darkness. The Eskimo were extremely depressed, and on the 13th, Jens Edward disappeared without eating his breakfast, or even taking his seal-skin mittens. A search was made, and he was discovered near Cape Murchison, travelling rapidly northward. He returned to the station without objection, and in time recovered his spirits.
The lowest temperature during the winter occurred on 3rd February 1882. The minimum was −62.2°, the maximum −44.1° F. The protective influence of a snow-hut was shown by the fact that after a mean temperature below −50° for five consecutive days, the thermometer inside read −17°. Even in these extremely low temperatures some hunting was done. On 16th February the mercurial thermometers thawed out, after having been frozen for sixteen days.
Preparations for spring sledging were actively commenced early in February. The saddler, the tinman, the carpenters and others were kept busy with sledges, boat, cooking-lamps, sleeping-bags, foot-gear, etc.
Of twenty-seven dogs purchased in Greenland only twelve were living at the end of 1881. In addition to these twelve there were three private dogs. This allowed two teams. As regards sledges, Greely decided to use the Hudson Bay pattern for the supporting sledges on the North Greenland coast. This form of sledge is suitable for the deep snow experienced by Lieutenant Beaumont. Light strips of ash were fastened to the bottom on each side to serve as runners, and it was found necessary to shod these with steel. Greely afterwards recommended future explorers to use Hunt’s pattern of the St. Michael’s sledge, with the addition of steel runners so arranged as to be attached or detached at pleasure. The Hudson Bay sledges, with lashings and coverings complete, weighed only 35 lb. The Greenland sledge was adopted as the pattern for the dog-sledge. The lashings of this sledge being of seal-skin permit rough handling without the sledge being materially injured. Its only drawback is the liability of the runners to split longitudinally through the row of holes bored to receive the lashings. Greely strengthened the upstanders and runners of his sledges by setting in plates of wrought iron. The pine slats commonly in use in Greenland were replaced by the best American ash, hickory, or oak. The weight of the sledge used was 105 lb.
