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CHAPTER VIII
THE VOYAGE OF THE JEANNETTE (1879−81)
The Jeannette was the new name given to Sir Allen Young’s Pandora after it was purchased by James Gordon Bennett, who had decided to equip a North Polar expedition.
The commander of the expedition, Lieutenant George W. De Long, had taken an active and distinguished part in the search for the Polaris. In making an attempt to reach the Pole, he favoured the route by Behring Strait, and he was supported by Bennett himself, who had been influenced by the views of Dr. Petermann, the German geographer. One of the chief reasons for choosing the Behring Strait route was the supposed existence of a Japan current, which, it was hoped, would open a way towards the Pole. Another reason was the view held as to the extent of Wrangel Land. Petermann actually believed that it extended right across the Pole and was the continuation of Greenland. It was afterwards proved to be only a small island.
Lieutenant Chipp, the second in command, acted with De Long in the search for the Polaris. George W. Melville, chief engineer, had been a comrade of De Long’s in the navy. The ice-pilot was William Dunbar, who had been master of whale-ships in and north of Behring Strait. Nindemann, the ice-quartermaster, was one of the crew of the Polaris who underwent the terrible winter-drift on the ice-floe.
The Jeannette left San Francisco on the 8th July 1879. A schooner, laden with 100 tons coal and such provisions as the Jeannette could not conveniently carry, followed on the same date.
Ounalaska Island was reached on the 2nd August, and left on the 6th. Here, coal, dog-food, and furs were obtained. De Long mentions that there was not a white woman in the place. The native women evidently do not expect a long courtship. A number of men had been brought from St. Paul’s Island on the Thursday; they made their selections on the Friday and Saturday, and were married on the Sunday.
St. Michael’s was reached on 12th August, but the schooner did not arrive until the 18th. Here, forty dogs, five sledges, snow-shoes, boots, and a large quantity of skin-garments were obtained. Two natives, named Alexey and Aneguin, were hired as interpreters and dog-drivers. The total number of persons on board the Jeannette was now thirty-three.
De Long had been instructed to make inquiries concerning Professor Nordenskjöld, who had nearly reached Behring Strait in making his famous north-east passage during the previous year. For this purpose he left St. Michael’s on 21st August, and made for St. Lawrence Bay, Siberia, which he reached on the 25th, after a stormy passage. Here he ascertained that a ship which had been frozen in during the previous winter in Koliutchin Bay, had left St. Lawrence Bay some time before. De Long believed that this must have been Nordenskjöld’s ship, but to make certain he decided to make inquiries near where the Professor wintered. He visited Koliutchin Bay, and found satisfactory proof that Nordenskjöld had wintered there, and had left in safety. It was now the 31st August, and De Long was free to continue his voyage to the north, but unfortunately the navigation season was drawing to a close. The lateness of the date when the Jeannette left San Francisco, her want of speed, and the delay caused by her search for Nordenskjöld placed De Long at a great disadvantage.
Pack-ice was met as early as the 2nd September. Herald Island was sighted on the 4th, and on the same date land was seen away to the south-west.
On the 6th September the Jeannette was beset, within a week after leaving the Siberian coast, and was never afterwards released. On the 9th September the position by observation was found to be 71° 35′ N., 175° 5′ 48″ W.
On the 13th September, De Long sent four men with a sledge to make an attempt to reach Herald Island. They returned next day and reported that they had been forced to return when about 5 miles from the island. Broad leads and rotten ice had been met, and it was evidently impossible to sledge to the island.
By this time it was observed that the Jeannette was being slowly drifted in the ice towards the north-west. On the 15th September the position was 71° 46′ N., 175° 36′ W., or about 15 miles to the north-west of the position on the 9th. All hope of getting out of the ice before next summer was now almost given up, and the best that could be expected was that the Jeannette might drift to Wrangel Land before spring. However, after drifting some distance to the north-west, the Jeannette was drifted to the east, and then to the south-west, thus forming a triangle, and after a month’s drift she reached a point near where she began.
On the 21st October the thermometer fell to zero for the first time. Preparations were made for the winter, and De Long took great precautions to see that everything possible was done to insure the health of the party. Special attention was paid to the proper ventilation of the ship and the avoidance of damp. The surgeon, Dr. Ambler, frequently tested the amount of carbonic acid gas in the air; and a thorough examination of the whole party was made monthly.
During October the land to the south-west of Herald Island was frequently seen, and De Long came to the conclusion that it was Wrangel Land, and must either be an island or an archipelago.
Before the sun disappeared on the 16th November a considerable number of seals, several bears, and some walruses had been shot, and served as an important addition to the stock of food for both men and dogs.
During November ice pressures became severe. On the 24th, the floe in which the Jeannette had been fixed was split, and the ship was once more afloat, but in a most dangerous position. On the 25th, it was driven by the ice about a mile from its previous position, until it held fast in some young ice.
At this time considerable difficulty was experienced in obtaining water of proper purity. There was little snow on the ice, and what there was contained a large quantity of salt, due to the wind drifting it and mixing it with the salt on the surface of the ice. It was therefore necessary to commence distilling.
The ice pressure was much less severe during December. From the 2nd to the 18th the change of position was only 8 miles towards the west. Christmas was passed merrily. About the end of December, Danenhower, the navigator of the ship, began to suffer from an inflammatory trouble in one of his eyes, from which he did not recover during the remainder of the cruise.
The year 1880 was ushered in by a minstrel entertainment given by the crew. On the 19th January the disagreeable discovery was made that the ship was leaking seriously. The ice pressure had evidently caused serious injury. On examination it was found that the water already stood 3 ft. in the forehold.
The deck-pumps were at once manned, and fortunately were able to keep the water in check until steam could be raised to work the steam-pump. This was a serious drain on the small supply of coal, but Melville was equal to every emergency. He ultimately succeeded in pumping by means of a windmill. Every effort was made to stop the leak, and although partly successful, pumping had to be resorted to more or less continuously throughout the remainder of the cruise. Nindemann and Sweetman took turns about in standing in the water in the forepeak building a bulkhead across it. For this work they received high commendation from De Long.
On the 26th January they had the pleasure of welcoming the reappearance of the sun. On the 1st of February a bear was killed, and as no fresh meat had been available for some time, this was a welcome addition to the stock of food. Another bear was killed on the 2nd, and when the stomach was examined it was found to contain only a few small stones.
On 6th March 1880 the position of the ship was 72° 12′ N., 175° 30′ W., which was only 26′ north and 6′ east of the position on the 15th September 1879. This proves the absence of a definite current. The depth of water varied from 30 to 40 fathoms, and the bottom usually consisted of blue mud. On the 20th March, De Long stated that he was now convinced that the drifting during the winter had been entirely caused by the winds, and not by any current. During March the north side of Wrangel Land was frequently visible.
On the 1st of May the sun could be seen at midnight. On the 5th May the position was found to be 73° 11′ 24″ N., 179° 37′ 30″ E., indicating a considerable drift since the beginning of March. It also showed that the 180th meridian had been crossed. On the 20th May the stock of coal amounted to only 60 tons, and De Long became impatient to get out of the ice. The total drift towards the north-west during the month of May was very good, amounting to 82 miles.
The drift during June was nearly the reverse of what it was during May, the Jeannette at the end of the month being 50 miles south of where she was at the beginning of it. There was still no sign of release from the ice, and the consequent disappointment was very great.
During July the temperature was usually near freezing-point, and yet De Long felt the cold much more than when the temperature was 30° below zero. The latter was what he described as a hard, dry cold, whereas the former was a soft, wet cold that penetrated at once. At the end of the month they were back again to the 180th meridian; the summer had nearly gone, and still there were no signs of a change. The monotony of waiting for “something to turn up” was found extremely trying.
On the 1st of August one of the dogs died, and on a post-mortem being made it was discovered that the dog’s death was caused by his swallowing a sharp bone, which cut through his intestines. Several other dogs were lost from the same cause.
Throughout the cruise, De Long took the strictest precautions to see that the water used for drinking and cooking was as free as possible from salt. After very thorough investigation, he arrived at the conclusion that sea-water ice, under whatever circumstances it may be found, is a treacherous and unsafe element to use.
The drift during August amounted to about 50 miles towards the north-east. The navigable season was now nearly at an end, and another monotonous winter in the pack awaited them. At the end of twelve months the Jeannette was only 150 miles from the point where she was first beset.
Preparations for winter had again to be made: a deck-house was erected, a porch was built around the cook-house, snow was banked against the ship’s side, and various alterations were made for the greater comfort of the crew. On the 29th September, when fresh meat was nearly gone, a bear weighing 943½ lb. before skinning was killed, and another was obtained next day.
The sun disappeared on the 6th November, and on this day the temperature was 30° below zero at noon. Severe ice pressures were again experienced, but did not excite so much alarm as did those of the first winter. On the 30th November the 74th degree of latitude had been reached for the second time.
A bear weighing 800 lb. was killed on the 2nd December. On the 11th December the temperature was 39° below zero, and the ice gave loud reports like the discharges of heavy guns. De Long believed that the noise was due to the splitting of the ice under contraction caused by the intense cold. At midnight on the 15th December the temperature was −48°. On the 21st a post-mortem was made on another dog, and the cause of death was ascertained to be the presence in the intestines of several mutton-bones, two pieces of a tin can, a piece of cloth, and the fag end of a rope. Christmas Eve was spent in the enjoyment of a minstrel entertainment, and Christmas had a more than usually elaborate dinner, consisting of soup, roast seal, apple jelly, tongue, macaroni, tomatoes, mince pies, plum pudding, figs, raisins, dates, nuts, candy, chocolate, and coffee.
The year 1881 was welcomed by another entertainment by the “Jeannette Minstrels.” The ship was now 220 miles north-west of where it was first beset, and the whole party, with the exception of Danenhower, were in good health. No serious case of frost-bite had occurred, although both officers and men were frequently out on the ice when the temperature was more than 40° below zero. On the 27th January the latitude was 74° 20′ 56″, the highest yet attained.
The sun was again seen on 5th February, so that their night had been 91 days, against 71 of the previous year. On the 14th the 75th parallel was reached, and soundings gave 44 fathoms. Next day great astonishment was caused when the lead-line gave 57 fathoms. A bear was killed on the 18th.
During March, as the latitude increased, so did the depth of water. On the 17th it was 67 fathoms, and on the 19th, 71 fathoms; latitude, 75° 15′. On 8th April, in latitude 75° 46′, the depth was 75½ fathoms; and in 75° 53′ 30″, on the 16th, it was 84 fathoms.
The 76th parallel of latitude was reached on the 21st April, and during the next four days the drift towards the west was no less than 47 miles.
On the 16th May great excitement was caused by the discovery of land. The latitude on this date was 76° 43′ 20″ N., and longitude 161° 53′ 45″ E. The land was only a small island, Jeannette Island, but its discovery caused great rejoicing among the party, who had looked at nothing but ice and sky during fourteen months. Another island, Henrietta Island, was discovered on the 24th May. The latitude on this date was 77° 16′.
On 31st May a party of six in charge of Melville started for Henrietta Island. They took a light boat, a sledge and fifteen dogs, and seven days’ provisions. De Long wished to know whether there was any bay in which he could place the ship, and whether there was animal or bird life with which he could replenish his waning stock of provisions.
On the 1st of June the doctor made the startling announcement that several of the party on board were suffering from lead-poisoning. An examination was made, and traces of lead were found in the water, and in still larger quantity in the tomatoes. It was supposed that the juice of the tomato had acted on the solder used in the tins.
The Henrietta party returned on the 5th June. They landed on the island on 2nd June, and left a record in a cairn. The island was found to be desolate rock, surmounted by a snow-cap. The cliffs were inaccessible; and dovekies nesting in the face of the rock were the only signs of life.
On the 10th of June the ice suddenly opened alongside the ship, which settled down nearly to her proper bearings. There was now a small canal on the port side, and into this De Long had a heavy floe hauled so as to receive the pressure in the event of the ice closing. This was at first successful, but later the ice closed in with great force, jamming the ship hard against the ice on the starboard side, and causing her to heel 16° to starboard. Orders were at once given to lower the starboard boats and haul them to a safe position. Melville, while below in the engine-room, saw a break across the ship in the wake of the boilers and engines, and it was evident that the ship was breaking in two. Orders were now given to remove sledges and certain provisions which had long been kept in readiness in case the ship might have to be abandoned. At 4.30 p.m. there was a lull in the pressure, and De Long began to hope that the worst was over, but at 5 p.m. the pressure was renewed with tremendous force. Everything needful for a retreat over the ice was now hurriedly removed to a place of safety. At 6 p.m. it was found that the Jeannette was beginning to fill, and at 8 p.m. everybody was ordered to leave the ship. At 4 a.m. of the 12th the Jeannette disappeared beneath the water, in latitude 77° 14′ 57″ N., longitude 154° 58′ 45″ E.
Preparations were at once begun for the retreat to the Siberian coast. The first and second cutter and the whale-boat had to be mounted on their travelling-sledges; bags had to be made to hold bread, tea, coffee, and sugar; and sledges had to be overhauled and relashed. To get their weights as exactly as possible, they had to start with an ounce weight and the doctor’s scales, and work up by a number of Remington cartridges to a pound. Two empty meat-tins tied to the end of a stick suspended by its centre formed the scale.
During this time they lived on plenty of food, as they had saved more than they could take with them. The clothing allowance for each officer and man was limited to what he was actually wearing and the contents of a packed knapsack.
All arrangements having been made, the start to the southward began on the evening of the 18th June. The party had three boats, seven sledges, and twenty-three dogs. Dunbar was sent ahead to select a route and plant flags for the party’s guidance. Danenhower, Chipp, Alexey, and Kuehne were on the sick list, but could walk. The five McClintock sledges carried 1659 lb., 1318 lb., 1252 lb., 1342 lb., and 1325 lb. respectively. During the first day these loads were found to be too heavy, and De Long saw that instead of being able to advance the boats and provisions in three separate hauls as he had hoped, he must be satisfied if he could do it in six. It was therefore necessary to repack the sledges. Even with the lighter loads, the runners of the sledges were frequently doubling under during the first few days. On the 20th June it rained steadily for eight hours, and instead of starting as usual at 6 p.m., the party did not get off till 2.30 a.m. of the 21st. Openings in the ice were already met, and caused great delay. Small ice-floes had to be dragged into position to form a bridge over which the sledges were dragged.
On the 25th June, after a severe week’s work, De Long obtained his first opportunity of ascertaining his latitude. His feelings may be imagined when he found that he was 28 miles farther north than where he started from a week before! He wisely kept this discouraging fact from the knowledge of the general party. He now altered his course from south to south-west. On this date Chipp was so weak that he had to be carried on a sledge.
On the 26th June five bridges had to be built over leads: the heaviest sledge fell into the water, but was dragged out; and Melville went in up to his waist. On the 27th eleven hours’ hard work carried them only 1¼ mile. One lead 40 feet wide, and another 60 feet wide, had to be crossed. Yet under all these difficulties everybody was bright and cheerful. It was no uncommon thing to have four leads to bridge in half a mile, and sometimes as soon as one was bridged another opened in the rear. Over this rough and ever-changing path six, and sometimes seven trips had to be made. It is not to be wondered at that the work was terribly laborious, and progress slow.
On the 3rd of July the latitude was found to be 15 miles farther south than on the 25th June, so that the drift had not been against them. The 6th July was a wet and stormy day, and the party remained in their tents until 6 p.m. of the 7th. On the 9th they were well satisfied with an advance of 3 miles. On the 10th July some excitement was caused by the appearance of land to the south-west. De Long was doubtful whether it was really land, but next day from the top of a hummock he saw unmistakable land, and also water.
Cocoa and chocolate were now exhausted, and the tea was reduced to half an ounce per man. The ice became comparatively loose, and boats and sledges had to be continually ferried across large openings on small floes. On the 13th July the first serious breach of discipline among the crew took place. E. Starr, one of the seamen, found a pair of wet soles on his sleeping-bag. He flung them some distance on the ice, in a temper, and refused to pick them up when ordered to do so by Melville. For some time he also paid no attention to De Long, who at once put him off duty.
On the 15th July a seal was shot, and proved useful both for food and grease for leaking boots. Another seal was obtained on the 16th, but on the other hand 270 lb. of pemmican was lost through the capsizing of a dog-sledge. On this day also De Long was unfortunate enough to break through the ice when jumping across an opening, and went up to his neck in the water.
On the 20th July a walrus was shot and secured. The choice pieces were used by the party, and the rest went to the dogs. The skin was cut into pieces and divided for boot-soles. They had now to contend with a moving, rotting pack, and they were greatly hindered by fog. Leads were continually opening and closing, and large blocks of ice were being swirled around, and carried first west and then east. On the 24th they had the good fortune to kill a bear. On the 25th land seemed quite close at hand, but after working 24 hours they had again to camp on the ice. Fog delayed the next start till the evening of the 27th, when they again hoped to reach land, but within half a mile of it they were stopped by broken ice, and had again to camp. On the 28th, after great difficulties, the land was at last reached. De Long took possession of it in the name of the President of the United States, and named it “Bennett Island.” After crossing the 180th degree of longitude, De Long should have advanced his date one day, but he did not do so, as the Jeannette was sometimes drifted east and sometimes west of this line. At Bennett Island he corrected the date, so that possession of it was taken really on the 29th July.
Preparations were now made to take tidal observations, make sketches, collect natural history specimens, and hunt for game, etc. Large quantities of driftwood were scattered about the shore, and Melville found a vein of bituminous coal. The face of the cliffs was alive with dovekies, of which they obtained a fair number.
Bennett Island was left on 6th August, after a record had been deposited in a cairn. Ten of the poorest dogs were shot, leaving twelve. On the 7th the party were able to take to their boats, and the men were distributed as follows: – In first cutter, De Long, Ambler, Collins, Nindemann, Ericksen, Kaack, Boyd, Alexey, Lee, Noros, Dressler, Görtz, Iversen. In second cutter, Chipp, Dunbar, Sweetman, Sharvell, Kuehne, Starr, Manson, Warren, Johnson, Ah Sam. In whale-boat, Melville, Danenhower, Newcomb, Cole, Bartlett, Aneguin, Wilson, Lauterbach, Tong Sing, Leach.
Soon after the boats started, four of the dogs jumped out and were lost. Two St. Michael’s sledges and four McClintock sledges had been left behind. On the 8th August other four dogs jumped from the boats, and two dogs were shot, leaving only two.
A good deal of ice was still met with, and the boats had frequently to be hauled on the ice and dragged across until open water was again found. A seal was shot and secured on the 11th August. On this date they calculated that they had advanced about 20 miles. Another seal was obtained on the 15th, and as provisions were now running low, it was very acceptable. The last ration of bread was served out on the 18th. On the 19th the ice closed on the second cutter and stove a hole in the bow. Chipp repaired it with a piece of Liebig box. On the 20th August land was seen to the south-west. Preparations were now made for sea. Snow was melted for water, and the boats overhauled, etc. On the 21st, however, before they could start, the ice had closed around them, and it was not until the 29th that they were able to take to the water.
On the 30th August they reached and landed on Faddejew Island. The “Faddejew Hut” marked on the Russian chart was found tumbling to decay. The island was left on the 31st August. On the 1st September the second cutter was separated from the other two boats, and did not rejoin them till the afternoon of the 3rd. In order to let Chipp have a better chance of keeping up with the other two boats, De Long ordered one man, Ah Sam, to his party, and another, Manson, to go in Melville’s boat. This resulted in the saving of Manson’s life.
On the 4th September they landed on a low beach running out from the island of Kotelnoi. Some of the party, next day, came across several ruined huts, and in one of them was found an elephant tusk, a wooden cup, a spoon, and a fork.
Kotelnoi Island was left on the 6th September. Semenooski Island was reached on the 10th, and on this day the last of Liebig’s Extract was used. It had been much liked by the party. On this small island they were fortunate in killing a deer. They rested here till the 12th, and on leaving deposited a record. They had still seven days’ provisions, and De Long hoped to reach the Lena without difficulty.
A breeze sprang up on the afternoon of the 12th, and at 9 p.m. De Long lost sight of the whale-boat ahead, and at 10 p.m. he lost sight of the second cutter astern. The wind had now freshened to a gale. On the 13th there was a tremendous sea, and the boat shipped a good deal of water. An attempt was made to ride out the gale under the lee of a sail, but after doing well for an hour, the sheet parted, and sail and yard were lost. Nothing more was seen by De Long of the other two boats.
Land was sighted on the 16th September, but when more than a mile from the shore the water was not deep enough to float the boat. They passed a miserable night attached to some thin ice, and next morning several attempts were made to reach land in the boat, but it always grounded. A raft was then made, and on this were placed tents, cooking-stoves, and boat-box. All the party had to wade knee-deep 1½ mile to the shore. After a second load was landed, the boat was dragged to within half a mile of the land. The remainder of the load had then to be carried. This was completed at 10.20 p.m. in a snowstorm.
They rested over Sunday, 18th September, and set out on the 19th to walk to a settlement believed to be 95 miles distant, on the Lena River. They had about 3½ days rations. Everything not absolutely necessary was cached, and a record left in the instrument-box. Even then it was found soon after starting that the loads were too heavy, and log-books, stove, some alcohol, a tent, and binoculars were sent back to the cache. The road was bad, several of the men were lame, and occasionally they were wading up to the knees.
On the 20th September another tent was left behind, as they found they could not carry it. The day’s march took them over ponds with thin ice, and mossy swamps. Ericksen had frost-bitten feet, and kept the rest of the party back. At the end of the fourth mile De Long was compelled to halt and open the last tin of pemmican. On starting out again, they struck deer-tracks, and this gave great encouragement. They accordingly pushed ahead, but soon afterwards De Long was informed that Ericksen had lain down and desired to be left. De Long and the doctor went back and got Ericksen on his feet again, but he was in a serious condition, and it was evident that the progress of the party would be slow if they were all to keep together. Nindemann and Alexey were sent ahead to trace the deer, but they were unsuccessful, although they saw a herd of seven or eight. They were again sent off, accompanied by Collins, and the remainder of the party camped. De Long decided that if game were not obtained he would send a small party forward to bring relief. Next day, however, he pushed on again, although no game had yet been obtained. On this march they came to two huts, and De Long decided to halt here. It was his intention to send the doctor and Nindemann on next day for relief. Alexey, however, who had been sent to examine some hut-like objects, found deer-tracks, and as they seemed fresh, he followed them, and was successful in killing two deer. He cut off a hind-quarter of meat and set off for the hut. When he arrived, the remainder of the party had retired for the night, but when the announcement was made that deer had been obtained sleep was forgotten. Cooking soon began in both huts, and the whole of the meat was consumed, with the exception of two tongues, before they felt satisfied.
De Long now decided to remain at the huts and rest another day and live on the deer. It was not, however, till two days had passed that a fresh start was made. A record of the movements of the party was left in one of the huts. De Long also left his Winchester rifle.
On the 24th September they passed a wretched night. Beds were made of a few logs, and wrapped in their blankets the party tried to sleep, but could not, and in the morning they were all cold and stiff. On the 25th the remainder of the deer-meat was eaten for dinner. At night two other huts were reached, and here they halted. Next day they had only food for three more meals. They had also one dog.
On the 27th September another deer was shot, and the danger of starvation was again averted. The hungry men at once commenced eating fried deer-meat, and took about 3 lb. each. The party then went on again, but Ericksen’s foot was very bad, and progress was slow.
On the 28th September they came to a point where they had no alternative but to cross a river a quarter of a mile wide. No wood could be obtained to build a raft large enough for the purpose, and they were forced to stay here in an old hut until 1st October, when the river had frozen over sufficiently to allow them to cross.
A large gull was shot on the 29th, and with this they made soup. Fires were made when it was dark at night, in the hope of drawing attention. On the 30th the doctor removed several of Ericksen’s toes.
On the 1st October a record was left in the hut, and the party then crossed the river with Ericksen on a sledge. De Long now saw that the chart in his possession was practically useless. He had been hoping to reach a place marked on the chart as “Sagastyr,” but he now looked upon this as a myth.
On the 2nd and 3rd they struggled on, and had to camp in the open at night. On the 3rd October the last of the pemmican was eaten, and nothing now remained but the dog, which was killed for supper. De Long and other two men broke through the ice during the day’s march and got thoroughly wet. At night they tried to dry themselves before a fire of driftwood. Ericksen groaned and rambled in his talk, and the whole party spent a most miserable night. On the morning of the 4th they moved to a hut which had been discovered by Alexey the previous night. From his chart De Long now arrived at the conclusion that he was on Tit Ary Island, and about 25 miles from Ku Mark Surka, which he took to be a settlement. It may here be mentioned, as indicating the worthless character of De Long’s chart, that instead of being at Tit Ary Island as he supposed, he was about 120 miles from it, and Ku Mark Surka lay 33 miles beyond that.
