CONTENTS
Cover
Introduction
Acknowledgements
1/ SUPPORTS
2/ DRAWING MEDIA
3/ PAINTING MEDIA
4/ WHERE SHALL I START?
5/ DRAWING & SKETCHING
6/ PAINTING TECHNIQUES
7/ COLOUR & COMPOSITION
8/ WHAT SHALL I PAINT?
9/ THE STUDIO
10/ GALLERY OF ART
Reference & List of Searchable Terms
Copyright
About the Publisher
INTRODUCTION
Renoir once observed that ‘painting isn’t just daydreaming, it is primarily a manual skill, and one has to be a good workman’. Too often it is forgotten that painting is a craft as well as an art – and a difficult craft to master, at that.
At first sight, dipping a brush into paint and applying it to a surface seems easy enough. But there are traps for the unskilled: an inadequately prepared support may warp or buckle; the wrong support can adversely affect the way the paint handles; ill-chosen colours turn muddy when mixed together; poor-quality or fugitive colours will fade in time. By understanding the materials and techniques at his or her disposal, the artist can avoid such pitfalls and increase the pleasures of making art.
In recent decades, art schools have tended to dismiss basic skills and techniques as ‘irrelevant’, and they have been neglected in favour of ‘freedom of expression’. In so doing, tutors have thrown the baby out with the bathwater, for without a thorough technical grasp of materials and methods, students of art have no real freedom to express their ideas – it is like asking someone with no knowledge or concept of grammar or syntax to write a novel.
This is not to imply that a good craftsperson is necessarily a good artist. Manual dexterity and technical know-how are meaningless if an artist’s work is deficient in thought and feeling. Along with a learning hand, one must develop a seeing eye – and for many people, this is the most difficult part. In the desire to produce a ‘finished’ picture, the impatient student often overlooks the two things that are fundamental to all art: drawing and observation. It is vital to train your eyes by really looking at the world around you, and to keep sketching and drawing all the time. When you draw what you see, you develop your powers of observation and analysis. Your mind absorbs many details – for instance, the way light and shadow create form, how tone and colour alter with distance – enabling you to draw a surprising amount from memory and from imagination.
The purpose of this manual, then, is twofold. First, by providing an in-depth examination of the skills and techniques involved, not only in painting and drawing but also in preparing a support and in choosing and mixing colours, it endeavours to encourage a pride in the craftsmanship needed to produce a work of art. Second, by using a wide range of work by respected professional artists as a source of inspiration, it aims to help you develop your personal vision of the world and to find your own voice in interpreting that vision.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
This book is the work of many hands, and is the result of several years’ planning and preparation. The designers, editors and producers are indebted to all who have contributed and have given freely of their time and expertise. Our thanks go to the following: |
Editorial Consultants
Dr Sally Bulgin
Editor and owner of The Artist and Leisure Painter magazines. Author of several art instruction books
Angie Gair
Author of several art instruction books
Art and Technical Consultants
Trevor Chamberlain,
ROI, RSMA
Carolynn Cooke
David Curtis, ROI,
RSMA
John Denahy, NEAC
John Lloyd
Terry McKivragan
John Martin
Ian Rowlands
Brian Yale
With special thanks to:
Ken Howard, RA, ROI,
RWS, NEAC
Daler-Rowney Ltd
Emma Pearce
Winsor & Newton
Demo Artists
Alastair Adams
Ray Balkwill
David Day
Jennie Dunn
David Griffin
Timothy Easton
Robin Harris
Nick Hyams
David Jackson
Ella Jennings
Simon Jennings
Ken Howard
John Lidzey
Debra Manifold
Alan Marshall
Kay Ohsten
Ken Paine
Peter Partington
Jackie Simmonds
Shirley Trevena
Valerie Wiffen
Colin Willey
Laurence Wood
John Yardley
Artists
Grateful thanks also go to the following artists, who generously loaned samples of materials, artworks and transparencies, and who provided much time, advice and assistance:
Alastair Adams
Victor Ambrus
Nick Andrew
Penny Anstice
Paul Apps
Barry Atherton
Gigol Atler
Ray Balkwill
Valerie Batchelor
Joan Elliott Bates
Richard Bell
John Blockley
Jane Camp
Sarah Cawkwell
Trevor Chamberlain
Terence Clarke
Tom Coates
Jill Confavreux
Grenville Cottingham
Edwin Cripps
James Crittenden
Fred Cuming
David Curtis
David Day
John Denahy
Sarah Donaldson
Jennie Dunn
Timothy Easton
Sharon Finmark
Roy Freer
Kay Gallwey
Annabel Gault
Geraldine Girvan
Peter Graham
David Griffin
Gordon Hales
Roy Hammond
Robin Harris
Desmond Haughton
Andrew Hemingway
Ken Howard
Michael Hyam
Nick Hyams
Alan Hydes
David Jackson
Pauline Jackson
Ella Jennings
Simon Jennings
Ronald Jesty
Carole Katchen
Sally Keir
Sophie Knight
Tory Lawrence
John Lidzey
Anna Macmiadhachain
Padraig Macmiadhachain
Debra Manifold
John Martin
Judy Martin
Simie Maryles
Donald McIntyre
Alex McKibbin
Terry McKivragan
John Monks
Alison Musker
Patricia Mynott
Keith New
Kay Ohsten
Ken Paine
Peter Partington
Elsie Dinsmore Popkin
Penny Quested
John Raynes
Jacqueline Rizvi
Keith Roberts
Dennis Mathew Rooney
Leonard Rosoman
George Rowlett
Naomi Russell
Hans Schwarz
Hil Scott
Barclay Sheaks
Jackie Simmonds
Richard Smith
Michael Stiff
Sally Strand
David Suff
Robert Tilling
Shirley Trevena
Jacquie Turner
Sue Wales
Valerie Wiffen
Colin Willey
Anna Wood
Leslie Worth
Brian Yale
John Yardley
Rosemary Young
Galleries
Art Space Gallery, London
Chris Beetles Gallery, London
Browse and Darby, London
The Fine Art Society, London
Fischer Fine Art, London
Kentmere House Gallery, York
Lizardi / Harp Gallery, Pasadena, California
Llewellyn Alexander
Gallery, London
Montpelier Studio, London
Museum of Modern Art, New York
National Gallery, London
New Academy Gallery, London
New Grafton Gallery, London
On Line Gallery, Southampton
Piccadilly Gallery, London
Redfern Gallery, London
Brian Sinfield Gallery, Burford
Tate Gallery, London
Westcott Gallery, Dorking
Companies
Acco-Rexel
Arnesby Arts
The Artist magazine
Berol
Bird & Davis
Ken Bromley’s Perfect
Paper Stretcher
R.K. Burt & Co.
Canson
ChromaColour
ColArt
L. Cornelisson & Son
Daler-Rowney Ltd
Falkiner Fine Papers
Frisk Products
Inscribe
Intertrade International
Jakar International
Khadi
Koh-i-Noor
Letraset UK
A. Levermore & Co.
Liquitex UK
David Lloyd Picture
Framers
Martin/F. Weber Co.
Osborne & Butler
Pentel
Philip & Tracey
Pro Arte
Project Art
C. Robertson & Co.
Raphael & Berge
Rotring UK
Royal Sovereign
St Cuthbert’s Paper Mills
Tate Gallery Publications
Tollit & Harvey
Unison
Winsor & Newton
Photographers and picture sources
Studio photography by Paul Chave and Ben Jennings
Other photography by: Acco-Rexel Ltd; John Couzins; Daler-Rowney Ltd; Ikea Ltd; Simon Jennings; Raphael & Berge SA; and Shona Wood
Before starting a painting or drawing, it is worth spending some time choosing and preparing the surface, or support, as this will have a great bearing on which medium you use, and the effects that you are able to achieve with it. Although the range of canvases, panels and papers may seem somewhat bewildering at first glance, finding the right support for your purpose is not very difficult when you understand the properties of each one. A properly prepared support will greatly increase the longevity of a work and, in addition, you can derive a lot of pleasure and satisfaction from this aspect of the artist’s work.
CANVAS | In painting, canvas is still the most widely used of all supports. Stretched-and-primed canvas is taut but flexible, and has a unique receptiveness to the stroke of the brush. The two most common fibres for making canvas are linen and cotton, although hessian and synthetic fibres are also used. Each of these fibres differs in terms of durability, evenness of grain, ease of stretching and cost. |
Linen is considered the best canvas because it has a fine, even grain that is free of knots and is a pleasure to paint on. Although expensive, it is very durable and, once stretched on a frame, retains its tautness. Good-quality linen has a tight weave of even threads which will persist through several layers of primer and paint; avoid cheap linen, which is loosely woven.
Preparing linen canvas
The weaving process makes raw linen canvas prone to shrinking and warping when it is stretched, and it has a tendency to resist the application of size. However, both these problems can be solved by temporarily stretching the canvas, wetting it and allowing it to dry. Then remove the canvas from the stretcher bars and re-stretch it; this second stretching creates a more even tension across the cloth.
Cotton canvas
A good-quality 410–510gsm (12–15oz) cotton duck is the best alternative to linen, and is much cheaper. Cotton weaves of below 410gsm (12oz) are fine for experimenting with, but they stretch much more than linen and, once stretched, they are susceptible to fluctuations in tension in either humid or dry conditions. The weave of cheap cotton quickly becomes obscured by layers of primer and paint, leaving the surface rather flat and characterless.
Hessian
Hessian is inexpensive, but has a very coarse weave and requires a lot of priming. It is liable to become brittle and lifeless in time.
Synthetic fibres
Synthetic fabrics, such as rayon and polyester, are now used in the manufacture of artists’ canvas. These canvases come ready-prepared with acrylic primer and are worth trying out, as they are exceptionally strong and durable, flexible but stable, and resistant to chemical reaction.
Canvas textures
If you use bold, heavy brushstrokes, canvas with a coarsely woven texture is the most suitable. A smooth, finely woven texture is more suited to fine, detailed brushwork. Another consideration is the scale of your painting. A fine-grained canvas is best for small works, as the texture of coarse-grained canvas may be too insistent and detract from the painting.
Ready-primed canvas
Ready-primed canvas comes prepared with either an oil- or an acrylic-based primer. It is better to use an oil-primed canvas for oil painting and leave acrylic-primed ones for acrylic paintings, but you can use an acrylic-primed canvas for oils if you paint thinly and on a small scale.
Canvas may be single- or double-primed. The latter is more expensive; it has a denser surface, but it is less flexible than single-primed canvas.
Canvas weights
Wet the stretched linen canvas and allow it to dry.
The weight of canvas is measured in grams per square metre (gsm) or ounces per square yard (oz). The higher the number, the greater density of threads. Better-grade cotton canvas, known as cotton duck, comes in 410gsm (12oz) and 510gsm (15oz) grades. Lighterweight canvases of between 268gsm (8oz) and 410gsm (12oz) are recommended for practice only.
Ready-prepared supports
You can buy ready-primed and stretched supports which consist of a piece of canvas mounted on a stretcher. These supports are convenient, but are expensive when compared to the cost of stretching, sizing and priming your own canvas.
Popular artist’s canvases
1 Ready-primed cotton-rayon mix
2 Ready-primed cotton duck
3 Ready-primed artist’s linen
4 Superfine artist’s linen
5 Cotton duck
6 Flax canvas
7 Cotton and jute twill
Buying economically
Before buying lengths of canvas, work out how you will divide up the fabric to make as many pictures as possible with the minimum of wastage (canvas rolls come in several widths). When doing your calculations, don’t forget to allow a 50mm (2in) overlap all round each picture for attaching the canvas to the stretcher.
Acrylic and oil don’t mix
Most of the ready-prepared canvases and boards available in art shops are primed for use with oil or acrylic paint. If you paint in acrylics, take care not to buy supports which are prepared specifically for oils. The linseed oil in the primer repels acrylics, and the paint eventually comes away from the support.
Canvas texture
The formal elegance of this abstract painting is enhanced by the subtle texture of the linen canvas, which appears through the thin layers of oil paint.
Pádraig Macmiadhachain
Blue Morning
Oil on canvas
25 × 30cm (10 × 12in)
Overlap
Remember to add a minimum of 50mm (2in) of canvas all round, for when you attach it to the stretcher.
SEE ALSO
STRETCHING CANVAS
SIZING FOR OILS
PRIMING
OIL PAINTS
ACRYLIC PAINTS
STRETCHING CANVAS | Stretching your own canvas not only offers a saving in cost, but also means that you can prepare a canvas to your own specifications. |
Stretcher bars
Wooden stretcher bars are sold in most art-supply stores and come in different lengths. They have premitred corners with slot-and-tenon joints. The face side of each stretcher bar is bevelled to prevent the inner edge of the stretcher creating ‘ridge’ lines on the canvas. Stretcher bars come in varying widths and thicknesses, depending on the size of support you wish to make. For a work under 60 × 60cm (24 × 24in), use 45 × 16mm (1¾× 5/8in) stretcher bars. For larger works, use 57 × 18mm (2¼ × ¾in) bars.
Wedges
You will also need eight wedges or ‘keys’ for each stretcher. These fit into slots on the inside of each corner of the assembled stretcher; if the canvas sags at a later date, the wedges can be driven in further with a hammer to expand the corners and make the canvas taut again.
Canvas-straining pliers
Canvas-straining pliers are especially useful for stretching ready-primed canvases. They grip the fabric firmly without any risk of tearing, and the lower jaw is bevelled to give good leverage when pulling fabric over a stretcher bar; the correct tension is achieved by lowering the wrist as the canvas passes over the back of the frame.
Other equipment
Use a heavy-duty staple gun and non-rusting staples with a depth of at least 10mm (3/8in) to fix the canvas to the frame. You will also need a rule or tape, a pencil and a pair of scissors to measure and cut out the canvas; a wooden mallet to tap the stretcher bars together; and a T-square to check that the frame is square (or you can use a length of string to ensure that the diagonal measurements between the corners are the same).
Large canvases
A support that is larger than 80 × 100cm (32 × 40in) will require an extra crossbar between the two longest sides, to support them when the canvas contracts during preparation, exerting a great deal of force.
Tacks
Using a hammer and non-rusting tin tacks to fix the canvas to the frame is more economical than stapling, but means more work.
Pliers
Canvas-straining pliers stretch ready-primed canvases firmly and without tearing.
Cutting the canvas
Use pinking shears to cut canvas; they avoid the need to fold the edges over at the back of the frame to prevent the canvas fraying.
Assembling the stretcher frame
Slot the stretcher bars together, checking that all the bevelled edges are at the front. Tap the corners gently with a wooden mallet or a piece of wood for a close fit.
Checking for square
Use a T-square to check that all the corners of the assembled frame make right angles. Double-check by measuring the diagonals with an expanding tape measure or a length of string; they should be of equal length. If the frame is out of true, correct it by gently tapping the corners with the mallet.
Stretching the canvas
(1) Cutting out the canvas
Working on a large table or the floor, lay the frame bevel-side down on a piece of canvas. Cut the canvas to fit the frame, allowing a margin of about 5Omm (2in) all round for stapling (1).
(2) Securing with the first staple
Ensure that the warp and weft threads of the canvas run parallel with the sides of the frame. Fold the canvas round to the back, and secure with a staple at the centre of one long stretcher bar (2).
(3) Tensioning the canvas
(4) Continuing to staple
Reverse the frame, pull the canvas firmly and evenly, and secure a staple opposite the first one so that consistent straining is obtained. You can use canvas-straining pliers, if necessary, to grip the cloth and pull it taut over the frame (3). If glue size is to be applied, the canvas should be taut, but not as tight as a drum, to allow for possible shrinkage. Repeat the process on the two short sides, so that one staple holds the canvas to the centre of each stretcher bar (4). Check the parallel alignment of the canvas weave.
Securing the canvas
(5) Stretching and stapling
Now add two more staples to each of the four stretcher bars – one on either side of the centre staples – following the sequence shown in the diagram (5). The staples should be evenly spaced at 50mm (2in) intervals. Continue adding pairs of staples to each side, gradually working towards the corners. Insert the final staples about 50mm (2in) from each corner. Note that working systematically out to the corners keeps each side in step with the others. Fastening the canvas completely on one side before doing the next stretches the canvas unevenly.
Finishing off
(6) Fixing the first corner staple
(7) Folding the flaps
(8) The finished corner
(9) Inserting the wedges
The corners should always be finished off neatly; if they are too bulky you will have difficulty in framing the picture. Pull the canvas tightly across one corner of the stretcher, and fix with a staple (6). Then tuck in the flaps on either side smoothly and neatly (7) and fix with staples. Take care not to staple across the mitre join, as this will make it impossible to tighten the canvas later on. Then fix the diagonally opposite corner, followed by the remaining two. If necessary, hammer the folds flat to produce a neat corner (8). Finally, insert two wedges in the slots provided in each of the inner corners of the frame; for correct fit, the longest side of each wedge should lie alongside the frame (9). Tap the wedges home very lightly. The canvas is now ready for sizing and priming.
SEE ALSO
CANVAS
SIZING FOR OILS
BOARDS AND PANELS | Man-made boards are cheaper to buy and prepare than stretched canvas; they are also easier to store and transport, and they will provide a more durable support than canvas. |
Wood panels
Wood, for centuries the traditional support for oil and tempera painting, can no longer be relied upon to be well seasoned, so it tends to split and warp. It is also heavy to transport, and is now largely superseded by economical composition boards.
Hardboard (Masonite)
Hardboard is inexpensive, strong and lightweight. It is available in two forms: tempered and untempered. The tempered variety is suitable for oil paints and primers, and it does not require sizing. For acrylic painting, however, use untempered board, which has no greasy residue. Sundeala board, grade ‘A’, is particularly recommended, as it is lightweight and its surface is slightly more porous than standard hardboard, giving a good key for size and primer.
Hardboard has one smooth and one rough side; the smooth side is the one most often used. The rough side has a texture which resembles coarse canvas, but it is only suitable for heavy impasto work, as the texture is very mechanical and over-regular.
Hardboard is prone to warping, particularly in humid climates, but this risk is reduced by priming the front, back and edges of the board. Paintings larger than 45cm (18in) square should additionally be braced with a framework of wood battening across the back (see here).
Plywood
Plywood comes in various thicknesses and has smooth surfaces. It does not crack, but it can warp. To keep the sheet stable, size and prime it on the front, back and edges. Large sheets should be battened or ‘cradled’ by gluing wooden battens to the back of the board (see here).
Chipboard
Chipboard is made from wood particles compressed into a rigid panel with resin glue. Thick panels of chipboard are a sound support as they do not crack or warp and don’t require cradling, but they are heavy to transport. Another disadvantage is that the corners and edges may crumble, and, being absorbent, they need to be well primed.
Medium-density fibreboard (MDF)
MDF is made from pressed wood fibre and is available in a wide range of thicknesses and in standard board sizes. It is a dense, heavy, but very stable material and has fine, smooth surfaces. MDF is easily cut by hand or with machine tools. Large, thin panels may need to be cradled to help keep them flat (see here).
Cardboard
Degas and Toulouse-Lautrec painted on unprimed cardboard on occasions; they used its warm brown colour as a middle tone, and produced a matt, pastellike effect on the absorbent surface. However, a finished painting must be framed under glass if it is to last. Cardboard must be sized on both sides and on the edges to prevent warping and to stop impurities in the cardboard from leaching into the paint.
Mount board
Heavy mount board, or pasteboard, is available in a range of colours and has a smooth surface suitable for painting in acrylics and gouache, particularly when thin washes and glazes are applied. It is also used for pen-and-ink drawing. Always choose conservation board for work that is intended to last, as this is guaranteed acid-free.
Watercolour board
Watercolour board consists of a solid core faced with good-quality watercolour paper. The board provides extra strength and stability, and dispenses with the need for stretching paper prior to painting. Check that the core of the board, as well as the paper, is acid-free. Watercolour boards also perform well with pastel and charcoal.
Pastel board
Pastel paper mounted on board is available in a range of sizes, colours and finishes, from soft velour to a high-tooth, abrasive surface.
Canvas boards and panels
Commercially prepared canvas boards and panels consist of acrylic-primed cotton canvas mounted on rigid board. They come in a range of standard sizes and surface textures, and are a good choice for beginners. Because they are compact and lightweight, they are ideal for painting outdoors. Cheaper-quality canvas boards with an imitation canvas surface have an unsympathetic, mechanical texture and a rather slippery surface priming, and the backing board is prone to warping.
Marouflaging board
Many artists prepare their own canvas boards by covering boards with canvas or muslin – a method known as marouflaging. Fabric glued to board provides a surface which combines the unique feel of working on canvas with the greater stability of a firm surface which is not prone to movement under atmospheric changes. Any natural fabric can be used, such as worn linen, cotton sheets or tablecloths, unbleached calico, butter muslin or canvas offcuts.
Method
Check that the board is cut square and true. Dress the edges and lightly sand the smooth side to provide a key for the glue. Brush away all sawdust. Lay the board over the fabric, then cut the fabric to size, allowing a 50mm (2in) overlap all round (1).
With a household paint brush, apply size to the face and edges of the board (2). Smooth the fabric over the board with an equal overlap all round (3). Ensure that the warp and weft threads lie straight and parallel with the edges, as any distortion in the weave will show in the finished picture and be visibly distracting.
Apply more size to the cloth, brushing from the centre outwards and smoothing out any creases or air bubbles. When the size has dried, turn the board over and trim across the corners (4).
Size a margin around the edge of the reverse of the board, wide enough to stick down the overlapped cloth, which should not be pulled too tight as it may cause the board to warp. Smooth down the flaps of material and fold the corners over neatly (5). Add a final coat of glue over the reverse side to prevent warping. Leave to dry flat overnight before priming.
Keying hardboard
Before painting on the smooth side of hardboard, lightly sand the surface to provide a key for the application of primer.
Preparing a panel
To save time, an artist will periodically prepare a batch of panels at once, all cut from one sheet of board. For example, from a sheet of hardboard measuring 120 × 240cm (4 × 8ft) you can cut thirty-two 30.5 × 30.5cm (12 × 12in) panels, or thirty-eight 25.5 × 30.5cm (10 × 12in) panels. Most timber yards cut board for a small fee, or you can cut it yourself.
Cutting panels
Mark out the sheet with a rule and pencil, making sure all the corners are square, and saw along these lines. Now ‘dress’ the edges of each panel with a sanding block to remove any burrs from the saw cuts. To provide a key for the size or priming coat, lightly sand the surface of each panel. Always use a light touch; too much downward pressure may create depressions in the board.
Cradling boards
Cut two battens 50mm (2in) shorter than the width of the board. Chamfer the ends and then secure the battens to the back of the board, using wood glue for man-made boards, or woodscrews for solid wood or thicker boards.
Gesso panels
Gesso panels are the traditional support for egg-tempera painting. They can also be used for oil, acrylic and watercolour painting, but are quite difficult and time-consuming to prepare. Ready-prepared gesso panels can be bought from specialist art stores, though they are expensive. Gesso panels have an exceptionally smooth, brilliant white finish which particularly enhances the translucence of tempera colours.
Cardboard and hardboard
Cardboard’s warm colour brings a mellow harmony to Toulouse-Lautrec’s oil sketch. Note how the brush drags on the absorbent surface.
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec (1864–1901)
Woman in Profile (detail)
Oil on cardboard
For his bravura painting, Tom Coates used the reverse side of some unprimed hardboard. There is a lively interplay between thick impastos and thin, drybrushed marks, with the paint catching on the tooth of the board.
Tom Coates
Alfred Daniels Painting
Oil on panel
25 × 20cm (10 × 8in)
Marouflaging a board
(1) Cutting the fabric to size
(2) Applying size to the face and edges
(3) Smoothing the fabric
(4) Trimming the corners
(5) Folding the corner
Priming for oil paint
To provide a sympathetic surface for oil paint, prime a marouflaged board with alkyd or acrylic primer. If you prefer a slightly absorbent, matt surface, thin the primer with white spirit (about 10 per cent by volume).
Time-saving
When making up several small boards, you will find it quicker and easier to glue the fabric to a large piece of board. Leave it to dry and then cut it up into the required number of boards, using a bandsaw As long as the fabric is glued down firmly, it won’t matter that some edges have no overlap.
Preparing canvas board
If you dislike the slippery surface of some commercially primed canvas boards, you can simply apply a further coat of alkyd or acrylic primer, in order to give a more absorbent surface. Matt household paint may be used for sketches or practice work.