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Icterus baltimore (II, 195). Extends its range westward to the Rocky Mountains. Collected in El Paso County, Colorado, by Mr. Aiken.
Icterus bullockii (II, 199). Extends eastward to Eastern Kansas, where it is not uncommon. (See Snow’s Catalogue of the Birds of Kansas, 1873.)
Corvus cryptoleucus (II, 242). According to Mr. Aiken this species is abundant, and nearly replaces C. carnivorus along the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains, as far north as Cheyenne.
Captain Bendire found this a resident species in Southern Arizona, and met with two nests at the base of the St. Catharine Mountains, near Tucson. One of these contained three, the other four eggs. These he described as very light colored, so pale that if mixed with hundreds of others of this family they could be picked out without difficulty. Their ground-color is said to be a very pale green, with darker markings running more into lines than spots; in fact, very few spots were found on either set. The size of the largest was 1.85 inches by 1.33, that of the largest 1.70 by 1.19. They were not common in the vicinity of Tucson.
Cyanura (II, 271). For a special treatment of the races of C. stelleri, see Am. Journ. Science and Arts, January, 1873.
Cyanocitta californica (II, 298). Dr. Cooper has ascertained that this species does occur on the eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada, but lower down than the region he visited in 1863. He found a few at Verdi, close to the eastern boundary-line of California, at about 4,500 feet elevation, in July, 1870. He saw none elsewhere.
Tyrannus vociferans (II, 327). Captain Bendire writes that this species arrives in the neighborhood of Tucson about the middle of April, but does not commence nesting until the middle of June. All the nests he found were difficult to get at, being generally placed on a branch of a large cottonwood-tree, and at a distance from the trunk. The nest is described as very large for the size of the bird, composed of sticks, weeds, dry grasses, and lined with hair, wool, and the inner soft fibres of bark of the cottonwood. The usual complement of eggs is three, seldom four. They measure from 1.00 by .75 to 1.10 by .80 of an inch, are of a creamy-white color, with large isolated spots of a reddish-brown, scattered principally about the larger end.
Myiarchus (II, 329). For a discussion of the races of M. lawrencii considered in their relation to climatic color-variation, see Am. Journ. Science and Arts, December, 1872.
Sayornis (II, 339). The outlines of species of Sayornis given below are additional to those already published.
Empidonax brunneus (II, 363). Specimens in the collection of the Boston Society bear the MSS. name of E. olivus. But we cannot find a reference to this name.
Empidonax minimus (II, 372). Has been collected in El Paso County, Colorado, by Mr. Aiken.
7226 ♂
Sayornis sayus.
2707
Sayornis fuscus.
10028 ♀
Sayornis nigricans.
Empidonax obscurus (II, 381). Dr. Cooper found a few of this species wintering in a large grove of balsam, poplars, and willows, which retained most of their old leaves till spring, near San Buenaventura. Those shot were remarkably gray, and were supposed to have been blown down from the borders of the desert by the violent northeast-wind.
Pyrocephalus mexicanus (II, 387). Captain Bendire found the Red Flycatcher quite abundant in Southern Arizona, where they breed as early as April. They were most common in the neighborhood of Reledo Creek, near Tucson, and were generally found in the neighborhood of water. Their nests were in various situations, in one instance in a cottonwood-tree thirty feet from the ground, in another in the forks of a mesquite not more than ten feet from the ground. The nests were small, slight, and loosely made, and not readily preserved. They were made externally of twigs, fine bark, stems of plants, etc., and lined with hair and feathers. The usual number of eggs was three, and never more. Except in size these bear a close resemblance to the eggs of Milvulus forficatus. Their ground is a rich cream-color, to which the deep purplish-brown markings with which they are blotched imparts a slight tinge of red. These markings are few, bold, and conspicuous, and encircle the larger end with an almost continuous ring. In shape they are of a roundish oval, and measure .66 of an inch in length by .55 in breadth. The nest and eggs of this species were also obtained at Cape St. Lucas by Mr. John Xantus, and the eggs correspond. Dr. Cooper found two male birds of this species in a grove near the mouth of the Santa Clara River, six miles from San Buenaventura, in October, 1872. They had obtained their perfect plumage, but seemed to be young birds. They hunted insects much like a Sayornis, and uttered only a faint chirp.
Chordeiles popetue, var. minor (II, 400). Specimens from Miami, Florida, collected by Mr. Maynard, agree very nearly with typical examples of var. minor from Cuba, both in size and color, and should possibly be referred to that race. A male (7,414, Mus. C. J. M.) measures: wing, 7.00; tail, 4.15. The colors are those of var. popetue, with less rufous than in the single specimen of minor with which it has been compared.
Chordeiles texensis (II, 406). Dr. Cooper shot a single specimen of this species near San Buenaventura, April 18, 1873.
Antrostomus carolinensis (II, 410). This species has been detected by Mr. Ridgway in Southern Illinois (Wabash County), where it is a rare summer sojourner.
Panyptila melanoleuca (II, 424). Dr. Cooper saw many of this species in the cañon of Santa Anna, flying about inaccessible cliffs of sandstone, where they doubtless had nests, May 20. He saw also them near San Buenaventura, August 25, when they came down to the valley from the sandstone cliffs ten miles distant. They afterwards hunted insects almost daily near the coast, flying high during the calm morning, but when there were sea-breezes flying low and against it. After a month they disappeared, and none were seen until December 14, when they were again seen until the 20th. None were seen during the rains, or until February 26, when they reappeared, and after April 5 they retired to the mountains.
Nephœcetes niger (II, 429). Dr. Cooper informs us that a fine specimen of this rare bird was taken at San Francisco in the spring of 1870, and brought to Mr. F. Gruber. It had, from some cause, been driven to alight on the ground, from which it was not able to rise, and was taken alive. The exact date was not noted.
Chætura vauxi (II, 435). Dr. Cooper states that in the spring of 1873 this Swift appeared as early as April 22 near San Buenaventura. The year before he first saw them near San Diego on the 26th.
Geococcyx californianus (II, 472). Has been found in El Paso County, Colorado, by Mr. Aiken.
Picus gairdneri (II, 512). Four eggs of this Woodpecker were taken by Mr. William A. Cooper near Santa Cruz, Cal., from a hole in a tree, one side of which was much decayed. Four is said to be the usual number of their eggs, although five were found in one instance. The eggs resemble those of P. pubescens, and measure .75 of an inch in length by .57 in breadth.
Sphyropicus varius (II, 539). Collected in El Paso County, Colorado, by Mr. Aiken.
Centurus uropygialis (II, 558). Captain Bendire found this Woodpecker the most common of the family in the vicinity of Tucson, Arizona, where it was resident throughout the year. Like nearly all of its kindred, it is an exceedingly noisy bird. It appears to be a resident species throughout the year in all the southern portions of the Territory. Its favorite localities for nesting appear to be in the gigantic trunks of the large Cereus giganteus, which plants are called by the natives Suwarrows. These are easily excavated, and form a remarkably safe place in which to rear their young ones, on account of the many thorns with which these cacti are protected. Their eggs are usually four in number, but sometimes are only two, and resemble those of all the other kinds of Woodpeckers in their color and in their rounded oval shape. They average .98 of an inch in length and .76 in breadth. Usually two, and occasionally even three, broods are raised in a season.
Strix pratincola (III, 13). Dr. Cooper informs us that, though most of these Owls are resident in California south of latitude 35°, there is a migration southward in fall from the north. Great numbers of them appeared near San Buenaventura about October 20, 1872, for a few days, and most of them went still farther southward. They return north about the first of April. On the 12th of April he found a nest built four feet up in a pepper-tree (Schinus molle), forming part of a hedge, composed of coarse sticks, straws, and dry horse-dung inside, shallow but strongly built, and containing two eggs.
Falconidæ (III, 103). The following outlines of the Falconidæ were omitted in their proper places.
58983, ♀. ½
58983, ♀. ½
58983. Falco richardsoni.
58983, ♀.
43139, ♀. ½
43139. Falco gyrfalco, var. sacer.
5482, ♀. ¼
5482. Falco lanarius, var. polyagrus.
58983, ♀.
Chamæpelia passerina (III, 389). Dr. Cooper states that an individual of this species was killed by Mr. Lorquin at San Francisco, in May, 1870. Mr. Lorquin also obtained several at San Gabriel, Los Angeles County, several years previous.
Tetrao obscurus (III, 421). Dr. Cooper found this species in April, 1870, at the edge of the melting snow, near Cisco, about 6,000 feet altitude. They were still more numerous at Emigrant Gap, 5,300 feet altitude, where snow lay only in patches, and at Truckee, on the east slope, where there was no snow, and where he found two of their eggs in a deserted nest within sight of the town. In July he found them near Verdi, near the State line. This is the limit of their range. They also frequent the edge of perpetual snow, at an elevation of 9,000 feet, more numerously than below.
Ortyx virginianus, var. floridanus (III, 469, footnote). Specimens from Miami, Fla., exhibit the peninsular extreme of this species. They are altogether more like var. cubanensis than like virginianus proper, yet they differ uniformly in such essential respects from the Cuban form that they merit a distinctive name. The characteristic features of this form are the following:—
Char. Above, with dark bluish-gray prevailing, only the anterior part of the back being washed, or mixed, with reddish; scapulars and tertials quite conspicuously bordered with whitish. The whole gray surface more or less mottled or barred with black. The head-stripes are nearly uniformly black, with only a little rusty mixed in the occiput; the black gular collar is much extended, encroaching on the throat anteriorly, so as to leave only an inch, or less, of white, and posteriorly invades the jugulum, so that there is more than an inch of continuous black, and over this distance where black predominates. The entire abdomen, anal region, and breast are heavily barred with black, the black bars on the breast almost equalling the white ones in width. The sides, flanks, and crissum are nearly uniform rufous, the feathers of the former with white edges, broken by the extensions of the black streak which runs inside the white, while the latter have heavy black medial streaks and white terminal spaces.
The female is similar, except in the color of the head, which is exactly that of var. texanus.
Wing, ♂, 4.30–4.40; ♀, 4.35. Culmen, .60–.65; tarsus, 1.15–1.20; middle toe, 1.05–1.10.
Oreortyx pictus (III, 475). Dr. Cooper found these birds already paired near the summit of the Sierra Nevada, where the snow was but half melted off, and they scarcely descended below the limits of the snow in the coldest weather. In July he saw young birds just hatched near Truckee, at an elevation of 6,000 feet. This was on the 24th. On the 28th another brood, a little older, was seen at the foot of Mt. Stanford, about 8,000 feet above the sea. Most of the broods, however, were nearly fledged at that time. Dr. Cooper also mentions that he found this Quail not rare in the mountains east of San Diego above an elevation of 3,800 feet. He thought, also, that he heard this bird in the Santa Anna range east of Annaheim. It also exists in the Santa Inez Mountains, sixteen miles east of San Buenaventura, at an altitude of from 3,000 to 4,000 feet. It seems to be confined to the zone of coniferous trees, rarely if ever coming below them. Mr. Henshaw has obtained this species at Apache, in Arizona.
Lophortyx gambeli (III, 482). Captain Bendire found this Quail breeding in the vicinity of Tucson, in Arizona, near Rillito Creek, occasionally nesting in situations above the ground. One nest, seen June 7, 1872, contained three fresh eggs. It was two feet above the ground, on a willow stump, and in an exposed place, near the creek. The nest was composed of the leaves of the cottonwood-tree. In some instances he found as many as eighteen eggs in one nest. These closely resemble the eggs of the California Quail, so much so as to be hardly distinguishable from them. They are all of a rounded oval shape, sharply tapering at one end, and quite obtuse at the other. They measure 1.24 inches in length by one inch in their largest breadth. Their ground-color varies from a deep cream to a light drab. Some are sparingly marked with large and well-defined spots, most of them circular in shape, and of a rich purplish-brown color. In others the whole surface is closely sprinkled with minute spots of yellowish-brown, intermingled with which are larger spots of a dark purple. This species was obtained in Southern Utah by Mr. Henshaw.
II.
EXPLANATION OF TERMS USED IN DESCRIBING THE EXTERNAL FORM OF BIRDS
½ nat. size.
Turdus migratorius, L.
REFERENCES TO THE FIGURE
N. B. In the figure the adjacent regions are separated by a double bar, with the letters belonging to each affixed.
A. The body in general.
B. The region of the head.
C. The region of the neck.
D. The region of the trunk.
E. The region of the tail.
F. The region of the wings.
G. The region of the legs.
H. The feathers.
Note.—I am under obligations to Professor Sundevall of Stockholm and Dr. Sclater of London for assistance in correcting and improving the present article.—S. F. Baird.
B. Head
9. Bill in general.
10. Maxilla.
11. Mandible.
20. Ridge.
21. Tip of maxilla.
22. Keel.
23. Angle of chin.
27. Angle of mouth.
28. Commissure.
28½. Nostrils.
30. Cap (pileus), includes 32, 33.
31. Crown (vertex).
32. Front head (sinciput).
33. Hind head (occiput).
34. Forehead.
36. Frontal points.
39. Lores.
40. Ophthalmic region.
41. Orbits.
42. Cheeks.
43. Eyebrows.
44. Temples.
45. Parotics.
46. Chin.
C. Neck
48. Hind neck (includes 49, 50).
49. Nape.
50. Scruff.
51. Fore neck (includes 52, 53).
52. Throat.
53. Jugulum.
54. Side neck.
D. Trunk or Body
57. Back (includes 58, 59).
58. Upper back.
59. Lower back.
60. Rump.
61. Mantle (back and wings together).
62. Breast.
63. Abdomen (includes 64, 65).
64. Epigastrium.
65. Belly.
66. Crissum.
E. Tail
70. Tail feathers (or rectrices).
72. Upper tail coverts.
73. Lower tail coverts.
F. Wings
75. Primary quills.
76. Secondary quills.
77. Bend of wing.
79. False wing (alula).
80. Scapulars.
86. Primary coverts.
89. Secondary coverts (include 92, 93, 94).
92. Greater wing coverts.
93. Lesser wing coverts.
94. Middle wing coverts.
95. Edge of wing.
G. Legs
97. Thigh (concealed under skin).
98. Shin (tibia).
103. Heel joint.
103½. Tarsus.
112. Foot.
116. Toes.
126. Outer toe.
127. Inner toe.
128. Middle toe.
129. Hind toe.
For the purpose of defining the form, markings, coloration, and other peculiarities of birds, the different regions of the body have received names by which intelligible reference can be made to any portion. It is, perhaps, hardly necessary to say that all living birds have a head supported on a neck, with jaws extended into a bill covered with a horny sheath, or with skin, the two jaws situated one above the other, and always destitute of teeth. The anterior pair of limbs is developed into wings which, however, are not always capable of use in flight; the posterior serve as legs for the support of the body in an oblique or nearly erect position. The body is covered with feathers of variable structure and character, both in the young bird and the old. (The wings are apparently wanting in some fossil species.)
The following terms, English and Latin, are those most generally employed in describing the external form of birds, and are principally as defined by Illiger. In cases where there is no suitable English word in use, the Latin equivalent only is given. The figure selected for illustration, drawn by Mr. R. Ridgway, is that of the common American robin (Turdus migratorius, L.), and will be familiar to most students of ornithology.
A. Body in General (Corpus)
1. Feathers (Plumæ). A dry elastic object, with a central stem at one end forming a hollow horny tube implanted in the skin at its tip, the other feathered on opposite sides.
2. Quills (Pennæ). The large stiff feathers implanted in the posterior edge of the wing and in the tail.
3. Plumage (Ptilosis). The general feathery covering of the body.
4. Unfeathered (Implumis). A portion of skin in which no feathers are inserted.
5. Upper parts (Notæum). The entire upper surface of the animal. (Sometimes restricted to the trunk.)
6. Lower parts (Gastræum). The entire lower surface of the animal. (Sometimes restricted to the trunk.)
7. Anterior portion (Stethiæum). The forward part of the body (about half), both upper and under surfaces, including the chest.
8. Posterior portion (Uræum). The hinder portion of the body (about half), including the abdominal cavity.
B. The Head (Caput)
9. Bill (Rostrum). The projecting jaws, one above the other, united by a hinge joint behind, and covered by a horny sheath, or a skin, and enclosing the mouth.
10. Maxilla, or upper jaw (Maxilla).
11. Mandible, or lower jaw (Mandibula).
12. Ramphotheca. The horny covering, or sheath of the jaws.
13. Rhinotheca. The covering of the upper jaw.
14. Gnathotheca. The covering of the lower jaw.
15. Cere (Cera, or Ceroma). A skin at the base of the maxilla, in certain birds. (In birds without a horny sheath to the bill, the cere may be considered as extending to its very tip.)
16. Edges of bill (Tomia). The margins of upper and lower jaws where they come in contact. We have thus a
17. Maxillary tomium, and a
18. Mandibular tomium.
19. Gape or Commissure (Commissura). The junction of the tomia, or of the two bills.
20. Ridge (Culmen). The upper outline of the bill when viewed laterally; extending from base of bill to the
21. Tip (Dertrum).
22. Keel (Gonys). The lower outline of the bill viewed laterally; extending from the angle of the chin to the tip.
23. Angle of the chin (Angulus mentalis). The point where the two branches, or rami, of the lower jaw
24. (Gnathidia, Rami) unite, thence to be continued to its tip as the
25. Myxa (Symphysis).
26. Malar region (Regio malaris). The outside of the base of lower jaw; usually covered with feathers.
27. Angle of the mouth (Angulus oris). The angle formed by the mandible and maxilla; the posterior boundary of the gape or commissure, the tip of bill being the anterior.
28. Nostrils (Nares).
29. Head, as restricted (Caput). The head, exclusive of the bill.
30. Cap (Pileus). The whole top of head from the base of bill to nape.
31. Crown (Vertex). The highest central portion of the top of head (between the ears).
32. Sinciput (Sinciput). The anterior half of cap (from bill to middle of crown).
33. Occiput (Occiput). The posterior half of cap, (from middle of crown to the nape).
34. Forehead (Frons). From base of bill to crown (usually anterior to line of eye).
35. Nape (Nucha). See 49.
36. Frontal points (Antiæ). The two projecting feathered angles of the forehead embracing the base of the culmen, or included between the frontal angle of the maxilla and the angle of the mouth (not always present).
37. Mastax (Mastax). The side of the fore part of the head, adjacent to the base of the maxilla, and distinguished by its feathers or its color.
38. Capister (Capistrum). The anterior portion of the head all round the base of the bill.
39. Lore (Lorum). Narrow space between the bill and the eye, on each side.
40. Ophthalmic region (Regio ophthalmica). Space round the eye.
41. Orbits (Orbita). The innermost portion of the ophthalmic region immediately adjacent to the eye.
42. Cheeks (Genæ). See Malar region.
43. Eyebrow (Supercilia). A longitudinal stripe immediately above the eye.
44. Temples (Tempora). Whole side of the head behind the eye or between the eye, top of head, and the ear.
45. Parotic region (Regio parotica). Space around the ears.
46. Chin (Mentum). Space embraced between the branches of lower jaw.
C. The Neck (Collum)
47. Neck (Collum). The part connecting the head and trunk, enclosing the neck vertebræ.
48. Hind-neck (Cervix). The upper or posterior portion of the neck, from occiput to back.
49. Nape (Nucha). The portion of hind neck nearest the head.
50. Auchenium (Auchenium). The portion of hind neck nearest the back, the “scruff” of the neck.
51. Fore-neck (Guttur). The inferior or anterior portion of neck, from the chin to the breast.
52. Throat (Gula). The upper part of fore neck, or that nearest the chin.
53. Jugulum (Jugulum). The lower part of fore neck, between the throat and the breast. (Divided into upper, middle, and lower.)
54. Side neck (Parauchenium). The sides of the neck, between the front and the hind neck.
55. Collar (Torques). A ring of any kind encircling the neck.
D. The Trunk (Truncus)
56. Trunk (Truncus). That portion of the body enclosing the viscera and intestines, and carrying the neck and head at one end, the tail at the other, as also the four limbs.
57. Back (Dorsum). The portion of the upper surface of the trunk, from the neck to the rump, and corresponding to the dorsal and sacral vertebræ.
58. Upper back (Interscapulium). The upper portion of the back, or along the dorsal vertebræ; between the shoulder-blades, and opposite the breast, sometimes called dorsum anticum.
59. Lower back (Tergum). The lower portion of the back along the saeral region, from the upper back to the rump, and opposite the belly, sometimes called dorsum posticum.
60. Rump (Uropygium). The portion of the upper side of the trunk corresponding to the caudal vertebræ.
61. Mantle (Stragulum; Pallium). The back and the outside of the folded wings taken together.
61½. Ventral region (Regio ventralis). Under side of body, including breast and abdomen.
62. Breast (Pectus). The most anterior portion of the lower surface of trunk, representing the region of the sternum or breast bone (between the jugulum and the abdomen).
63. Abdomen (Abdomen). The under side of body, between the breast and the anal region.
64. Epigaster (Epigastrium). The anterior portion of abdomen, next to the breast.
65. Belly (Venter). The hinder portion of the abdomen, next to the anal region or crissum.
66. Anal region (Crissum). The region around the anus, below the tail, and opposite to the rump. Frequently includes under tail coverts.
67. Flanks (Hypochondria). The sides of the soft parts of the body.
68. Humeral region (Regio humeralis). The anterior portion of the sides; that in which the wing is implanted.
E. The Tail (Cauda)
69. Tail (Cauda). The feathers forming the posterior extremity of the body, implanted on the os coccygis, or rump bone.
70. Tail feathers (Rectrices). The long individual feathers belonging to the tail.
71. Tail coverts (Calypteria). The feathers overlying and covering the base of the tail feathers; the
72. Upper (superiores) being those above, and
73. Lower (inferiores) those below; sometimes concealing or projecting beyond the tail.
Note.—Tegmina (73½) are coverts in general, whether of wing or tail. Calypteria are tail coverts. Tectrices (83), wing coverts.
F. The Wings (Alæ)
74. Wings (Alæ). The anterior pair of limbs of the bird, used in flight.
75. Primary quills, or quills of the first series; Hand-quills (Remiges primariæ). The (usually) ten stiff feathers inserted on the hand or first joint (metacarpus and digit), or from the bend of the wing to the tip.
76. Secondary quills or quills of the second series; Arm-quills (Remiges secundarii; Pennæ cubili). The inner quills, or those inserted along the posterior edge of the forearm or cubitus. The innermost of these quills, sometimes longer or different from the rest, are frequently called tertials. (Pennæ tertiariæ.)
77. Bend of the wing (Flexura, Plica). The angle of junction of the hand-joint and that of the forearm.
78. Armpit (Axilla). The under side of the insertion of the wing into the body.
79. False or Bastard wing (Alula). A series of several stiffened feathers on the edge of the wing, overlying and exterior to the primary quills, and inserted on the thumb joint of the hand.
80. Scapulars (Pennæ scapulares). Stiffened feathers inserted on the shoulder-blade or the insertion of arm (humerus), and filling up the interval between the secondary quills and the body.
81. Axillars (Pennæ axillares). Similar feathers connecting the under surface of the wing and the body, and concealed in the closed wing.
82. Speculum, or Mirror (Speculum alæ). A brilliantly colored portion of the wing especially in the ducks, over the extremities of the secondary quills, and framed in on one side (in the closed wing) by the primary quills, or the other by the scapulars.
83. Wing coverts (Tectrices). The smaller feathers of the wing. The
84. Upper (superiores), side above or outer. The
85. Lower (inferiores), below, or inside, and overlying the bases of the quills. These and the quills form the surfaces of the wings.
86. Primary coverts (Tectrices primariæ). The feathers, which either
87. Upper or
88. Under overlie the bases of the primary quills. These are on the upper or under surface of the wing; not often distinguished in descriptions.
89. Secondary coverts (Tectrices secundariæ). The feathers which, as
90. Upper and
91. Under, cover the bases of the secondary quills, on the upper or under surface of the wings, being generally those referred to as “coverts.”
92. Greater coverts (Tectrices majores). The longest coverts projecting beyond the rest, and resting directly upon the bases of the secondary quills.
93. Lesser coverts (Tectrices minores). The succession of many series of small feathers beginning at and covering the anterior edge of the wing, very small at first and increasing in size behind.
94. Middle coverts (Tectrices mediæ). One or more rows of coverts, intermediate in size as well as position, between the lesser and greater coverts.
95. Edge of the wing (Campterium; Margo carpi). The small feathers covering the anterior edge of the wing, both along the forearm and the hand or first joint, including the bend of the wing.
G. The Legs (Pedes)
96. Legs (Pedes). The posterior pair of limbs inserted in the pelvis, and used in walking or running.
97. Thigh (Femur). The basal joint of the leg, its head articulating with the pelvis. This is generally imbedded in the flesh, and covered by the skin so as not to be appreciable, especially in the prepared specimen.
98. Shin (Tibia). The second or middle joint of the leg, articulated above to the thigh, below to the tarsus. The upper part, sometimes the whole, is enveloped in flesh, and covered by skin and feathers; sometimes the lower extremity is covered by horny plates, the
99. (Cnemidium).
100. Foot joint (Podarthrum). The junction of the tarsus below with the foot.
101. Podotheca (Podotheca). The horny or skinny covering of lower tibia, tarsus, and feet.
102. Knee (Genu). The junction of the thigh with the leg, usually concealed by the skin.
103. Heel joint (Suffrago). The junction of the leg with the tarsus.
103½. Tarsus (Tarsus). The third joint of the leg and next to the tibia; covered generally with horn, sometimes with naked skin or feathers, never with flesh; the toes are articulated to its lower extremity. This joint corresponds to the ankle joint of the human body.
104. Instep, or Front of tarsus (Acrotarsium). The anterior face of the tarsus, usually covered by small plates, which in the higher groups are united into one; sometimes covered by skin.
105. Side of tarsus (Paratarsium).
106. Back of tarsus (Planta tarsi). Homologically the Sole (Planta).
107. Heel (Calcaneus; Talus). The upper posterior extremity of the tarsus.
108. Spur (Calcar). Any bony sharp process or spine implanted on the tarsus, as in the rooster.
109. Scutellæ (Scutella). The succession of small, usually rectangular plates, applied against the anterior face of the tarsus, and the upper surface of toes. These sometimes encircle the tarsus completely, meeting on the inner side; sometimes reach half round with similar half-rings on the back side of the tarsus; are sometimes divided into polygonal plates; are sometimes fused into a continuous plate, either anteriorly or laterally. Modifications of structure in this respect indicate differences in rank and systematic position of the highest value.
110. Scutellate tarsus. When the tarsus is covered with transverse or polygonal scales, as described above.
111. Booted tarsus. Where the anterior face is covered with a continuous horny plate not divided into scutellæ.
112. Foot (Pes). The toes and tarsus taken together.
113. Top of foot (Acropodium). The entire upper surface of the foot.
114. The track (Pelma). The entire lower surface of the foot.
115. Heel pad (Pterna; Tuber). The posterior portion of the pelma, immediately under the joint of the foot, and frequently prominent.
116. Toes (Digiti). The, usually four, sometimes three, very rarely two, articulated portions of the leg hinged on the lower extremity of the tarsus. When all four are present, one is usually behind, sometimes two before, and two behind.
117. Top of toes (Acrodactylum). The upper surface of the toes individually.
118. Soles of toes (Hypodactylum). The lower or plantar surface of the toes individually.
119. Side of toes (Paradactylum). The sides, in any way distinguished from the soles.
120. Phalanges. The several bones composing a toe.
121. Claw (Ungues). The horny tips sheathing the last joint of the toes.
122. Claw joint (Rhizonychium). The terminal bone of the toe, carrying or armed with the claws.
123. Pads (Tylari). The swellings or bulbs on the under side of the phalanges. Those Toes are
124. Anterior which are directed forwards;
125. Posterior, directed backwards;
126. Exterior, on the outer side of the foot;
127. Interior, on the inner side of the foot; the
128. Middle toe is the central of three toes directed forwards.
129. Hind toe (Hallux). The single toe directed backwards. This is homologically the first or great toe directed backward. It is
130. Insistent (insistens), when the tip at least touches the ground, but the base raised above the level of the rest;
131. Incumbent (incumbens), when its whole under surface touches the ground; and
132. Elevated (elevatus; amotus), when raised so high that the tip does not touch the ground at all.
133. Unarmed toe (Digitus muticus). Toe without a claw. The tarsus is unarmed when without a spur.
134. Fringed toe (Digitus lomatinus). A lateral membranous margin to the toes. This
135. Fringe (Loma) may be
136. Continuous (continuum), or
137. Lobed or Scolloped (lobatum).
138. Membrane (Palama). A skin either soft or covered with scales or feathers connecting two adjacent toes together at the base, and sometimes extending to or beyond their tips. The foot so constructed is called
139. Palmate (palmatus) when the anterior toes only are so connected and
141. Oared (Steganopus), where all the toes, including the hinder, are so connected in the cormorants, etc. The feet may be half, or semipalmate; entirely or totipalmate.
Note. In the usual arrangement of the toes, of three before and one behind, the hinder corresponds to the great toe of man, or the first; the inner anterior is the second; the middle is the third; and the outer is the fourth. When the toes are in pairs or two before and two behind, it is the outer or fourth toe that is turned backwards, as is the woodpeckers. In the Trogons, however, the inner toe is reversed. With scarcely an exception in birds, the hinder or first toe has two joints; the inner (2d) has three; the middle (3d) has four; and the outer (4th) has five, or a formula of 2.3.4.5. In the typical Caprimulgidæ the outer toe has only four phalanges the formula being 2.3.4.4. Finally, in some Cypselidæ (Cypselus and Panytila), we have the middle and outer toes with three joints only each, the formula being 2.3.3.3. When there are but three toes, the hinder or first is wanting; the ostrich (Struthio) has but two toes, lacking the first and second.
