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With regard to vegetable parasitic growth I will not now detain you. The blights, and the mildews, and the ergots, as well as minuter forms, such as algæ and micrococci, are well known; and no doubt much more is still to be learned from their further investigation; whilst by analogy it seems highly probable that the circulating fluids of higher members of the vegetable kingdom may be found to be invaded by parasitic beings in the same way as their animal compeers.

But it is to Germ life in animal bodies that I wish now specially to allude. I have said that our knowledge in this direction has, even in the last two or three years, made enormous strides, and it is now almost a matter of certainty that all contagious or infectious disorders, as well as many others, are but the expression of the fact that minute living bodies have made a resting-place for themselves in or upon other living tissues; and that the development of the phenomena of these morbid states is but an indication of their presence and reproductive activity – either as cause, or as an accompaniment of these disease manifestations. And this applies not only to the human species, but to lower classes of animals, between whom and man many of these diseases are interchangeable.

Such knowledge necessarily invests the life history of these minute Germs with intense interest, seeing that it is probably one step, and that a long one, towards the discovery of the means of prevention, if not also of cure, of many of our most fatal and dreaded diseases.

Examples of such diseases are: – Scarlet Fever, Diphtheria, Small Pox, Cholera, Yellow Fever, Tuberculous Disease, Ague, Hydrophobia, Cattle Plague, Anthrax; and many others might be enumerated whose dependence upon parasitic Germs is almost conclusively proved. But these are sufficient to show the deep interest of this branch of study.

Not only are these Germs found in the solids of the body in some of these diseases, but in others their presence is easily and constantly recognisable in the blood or other fluids, and even within the corpuscles which the blood so largely contains. And not only so, but the forms which these micro-organisms present are so constant and so definite in the different disorders, that it is now almost possible in some instances to diagnose what diseased condition we have to deal with by an examination of the fluid or tissue in which they are contained.

It is, perhaps, but right here to say that some of our most cautious observers consider that it is as yet hardly proven that the differing Germs found in the various diseases are their actual and efficient cause; but their definiteness in the various disorders, and the constancy of their presence, leave little doubt that this will hereafter be conclusively shown to be the case.

Some of these Germs seem to have a short life and rapid development, and then we have acute disease. Others seem to have a more prolonged or continuing career, and then we have chronic disease. Whilst others seem to have an intermitting development, and then we have paroxysmal disease.

Many curious facts have been observed in reference to the forms, or multiplication, or life-history of some of these parasitic beings. Thus, for example, in one class (Filaria sanguinis) it was noticed that the minute embryos of this little blood-worm could only be discovered in the evening or during the night, and not during the day; and the reason of this has appeared to be that it is necessary that they should come within reach of the Mosquito Gnat, which is a night-feeding animal, in whose bodies one stage of their development appears to take place.

One of the latest discoveries in this department of natural history is that of the blood germs, which co-exist with the various forms of ague and malarious disease, and upon which they would appear to depend. Dr. Osler, of Pennsylvania (now Regius Professor of Medicine, at Oxford), has recently described and figured these little bodies in an elaborate paper full of interest.

Such facts as these, when regarded merely from the point of view of a member of the Medical Profession have their deep and special significance. But I am here to-night as a member of the Naturalists’ Society, and by all of us, in that capacity, they are first to be regarded, not as illustrations of disease, but of the life history of some of nature’s creations – creations which are no doubt as important, as definite, and which play as large a part in the general scheme of life, as do many of the larger forms of animated beings.

Some of these little bodies, especially those of the bacillary and bacterial class, are extremely minute, and are best examined with powers ranging from one-tenth to one-twenty-fifth of an inch; and it is impossible to ignore the fact that their study requires not only good instruments, but much patience and skilled attention. Nevertheless, such study fairly comes within the scope of this Society’s work, and will most certainly repay any of its members who may be induced adequately to undertake it.

Nor let it be said that minuteness is any reason for lack of interest on the part of the naturalist. For many of these micro-organisms have already been shown to be as varied, and to have as definite a structure, and as special a life history, as any of the larger types of beings; whilst, of course, we all recognise that apparent size is as nothing, that it is a mere accident, a question of the construction of our enquiring eyes, a condition that is at once altered and rectified by a magnifying glass.

If it be true that the invasion and presence of various small organisms in the blood or tissues is the cause of the various specific diseases to which I have alluded, then the application of such knowledge as naturalists can obtain, as to the food and other conditions necessary to their existence; their mode of ingress to the body; their development and multiplication, becomes clear and obvious. It opens up to our minds possibilities both of prevention, and of either mitigation or cure. For it is evident that if we can starve these Germs of their necessary nutriment, or make their new habitation unsuitable for their healthy and vigorous development, their career as invaders will necessarily either be cut short, or be rendered feeble and impotent; and therefore the disease-changes which they can produce less violent and less lethal.

Something of this kind appears naturally to have taken place in those persons in whom some of the zymotic diseases (of which Measles, Scarlet Fever, Whooping Cough, etc., may be taken as familiar types) have once run their course; in those, that is, who are popularly said to have already had these diseases. And although the exact abiding change which is produced has not been ascertained, yet it is well known, and quite understood, to be one which renders the fluids or tissues partially or wholly unsuitable for their future healthy growth.

This theory, too, is the well-known explanation of the protective power of the Cow Pox, which once having permeated a human system, has rendered it unsuitable for the future healthy and vigorous development of its greater relation – the Small Pox.

In default of available means of destroying the Germs of other malignant diseases, prolonged efforts have been made (and notably by the great French pathologist, Pasteur) so to diminish the intensity of the destructive force of some of these specific Germs, that they may be safely inoculated into human bodies without danger to life, and yet be potent enough in their effects to anticipate and render abortive the invasion of the more virulent diseases. This has been attempted by repeated cultivations of the Germs in proper media, until after several of such generations the broods shall have acquired the requisite diminished vitality – in fact, until that diminution of virulence which the Small Pox Germ has sustained in passing through the Cow has been obtained by these artificial means.

We are all familiar with the attempts which have recently been made by Pasteur in this direction, in regard to that most fatal disease Hydrophobia. It remains to be seen how far he has been successful in solving this preventive problem; and how far this may be the true method by which to utilize our knowledge of bacterial life. Medical men are diligently working at this subject from their own point of view. There is much to be done by microscopic naturalists in unravelling the life-history of these little beings; and we are glad to recognise the kind of results which may be hoped for in the future.

Such considerations as these are fraught with matter for deep reflection, and tend to open our minds to the far-reaching possibilities not only of this special knowledge, but of that which we are gaining in many other branches of science. Each fresh item of knowledge is like a new step upon a ladder, and raises us to a fresh height from which we can take a wider survey, and which we can assume as a loftier and broader basis for further enquiry. Scientific thought is ever as to what may next be done, and how to do it. For, as Sir James Paget has recently said: “Every increase of knowledge brings before us a larger and clearer view of the immeasurable quantity which is still to be gained. The more we know, the more can we see, if we will, how much more there is that we do not know.” And of this we may be sure, that it is by minute and exact work only that in the future our store of knowledge is to be increased and made sure. If no other example to prove this were at hand, it would be sufficient to quote the recent observations of the Rev. Dr. Dallinger on the subject of the conjugation of the nuclei of some minute forms of cell life: observations which bring us nearer to some definite knowledge of this particular matter than any hitherto made upon higher classes of creatures.

Dr. Dallinger has spoken of the “vast area of activity and research in this direction;” and Professor Huxley has said, “that those who have toiled for the advancement of science are in a fair way of being overwhelmed by the realisation of their wishes.”

We appear indeed to be still only on the threshold of knowledge, to have merely touched the fringe of the vast and infinite life-history which the living world, that inexhaustible stream of life which we see everywhere around us, contains. We are proud of the amount of our natural history knowledge. We think to have accumulated a large store of information as to that especially of our own district. We can point to the lists of animals and plants which the research of the members of our Society, and others, has so laboriously gathered together. And we can look to the stores of our Museum as illustrations of what has been done. And yet a little further consideration at once shows us how small a part this is of what is yet to be known. We know the gross form of the specimens; we know something of their habits during life; and yet how little is this of what there is to be known about them. Who is there of the most learned who can properly explain the meaning of one hundredth part of what these creatures present in form, size, colour, and intimate structure? We have a general idea that their special peculiarities have relation to the two primary essentials of life – the daily bread, and the perpetuation of the species – but we are largely unable to explain the raison d’etre of many of the commonest facts which they present. It will be a great day when we can also explain the object or utility of all the variations which they present.

Of course I do not forget the powerful impulse given by the researches of Darwin in the direction of explaining the why and the wherefore. I only indicate how large a portion of this explanatory field is yet untilled.

In this county a Naturalists’ Society will never lack either for material to work on, or for variety and interest of subject. Much, even in its grosser form, still remains to be learned. And the vast variety presented by the county, in respect of climate, soils, strata, heath, woodland, marsh, stagnant and running water, as well as the proximity of the great ocean with its shore – presents an almost unexampled field for the work of the scientific naturalist – a field, too, which is constantly changing in accordance with the physical and other changes steadily going on in the district.

With these great natural advantages, and with the great love for natural science, which is inherent in Norfolk men, I make bold to hope and prognosticate for this Society a prolonged and continuously useful career. We are glad to see its library growing, and its journalistic interchanges increasing. We are glad of the increasing importance of the position which it holds amongst kindred societies. We are all, I am sure, looking forward to the time when this, our Society, will meet in a handsome airy room on the top of the Castle Hill;¹¹ when any student of any particular branch of this natural history will be able (on repairing to our Museum) to see not merely inaccessible specimens ranged three or four deep, but so displayed as to be available for study and examination; when lectures and demonstrations will be possible, because there will be sufficient room space to contain both the lecturer and his audience; in short, when we in Norwich shall have a scientific centre worthy of the Museum and of the great reputation which this district has always held.

What a happy change, too, when the old Castle of Norwich – the last of our three city prisons – shall exchange its human prisoners for forms, imprisoned indeed, but not human; and intended only to enlarge and instruct and make more free the mind of man. And when Science and Art and the cultivation of the intelligence shall tend year by year, and ever more and more, to render real prisons less and less required. And when the moral sense and the force of cultivated public opinion shall suffice to reduce crime and ill-doing to its minimum. We gladly recognise how much has already been done, and we look forward with hope in both these directions to the good time coming.

In now resigning this chair to my learned and distinguished successor, I can only trust that he will find his year of office as pleasant, and as profitable to himself, as the Members of this Society, and their excellent Secretary, have rendered mine to me.

VIII.
THE PARISH OF ST. GILES’S, NORWICH, AND ITS CHURCH. ¹²

The parish of St. Giles’s, though relatively not large, yet has always in later periods occupied an important position in the City of Norwich. It formerly – as is usual with parishes dedicated to Saint Giles – lay upon the outskirts of the city, though not necessarily within the city proper previously to 1253¹³ (as Mr. Hudson has pointed out), when the city was enclosed with a fosse. In recent times Norwich has expanded largely in the direction of Earlham and Heigham, and St. Giles’s is now completely overlapped by these populous suburbs.

Blomefield describes the parish as having been part of a new portion of Norwich called the New Burgh, originally settled in the time of Edward the Confessor, but much increased at the Conquest by the Normans or Frenchmen settling in it. He says they chose and took this position as being the pleasantest part of the city; but it may also have been that they selected it as being merely the best ground as yet unoccupied by earlier settlers.

St. Giles’s parish is broadly triangular in form, with its base along Chapel Field Road and St. Giles’s Hill. It covers (according to Ordnance Survey) a space of 22·952 acres, and comprises within its area rather more than half of Chapel Field. Its western boundary is along the site of the old city wall, and of St. Giles’s Gate, whilst on the eastern or city side it extends as far as Fisher’s Lane and a little beyond. The population in 1881 was 1,438.

A main city street runs through it, now known as St. Giles’s Street, but formerly called Inferior Newport, Nether Newport, or Lower Newport; Bethel Street being then called Over or Upper Newport.

This street is handsome and well-built, and contains several large and important houses or mansions. Of late years several of these have been converted into the homes of public institutions, and the “Young Men’s Christian Association,” “Gilman’s Insurance Offices,” and the “Masonic Association,” now occupy some of the largest of them.

On the north side of this main street, near to Fisher’s Lane, formerly stood a Domus Dei, or Almshouse, but this was pulled down about 150 years ago. Browne, writing in 1814, says: “On the south side of this street is the office of Mack’s London Waggons, which go and return to and from London every week.” These waggons continued to ply for many years; and “Mack’s yard,” which adjoined what is now Mortimer’s Hotel, was a business centre of considerable importance.

In olden times, Fisher’s Lane, which extends from St. Giles’s Broad Street to Pottergate Street, was believed to have been so called as being the road to a fish-quay, which formerly existed there; but this is now thought to be very doubtful. The other principal thoroughfares are St. Giles’s Plain, in which was formerly an open pit – seen and mentioned by Kirkpatrick, but long since filled up; Rigby’s Court, leading from it, formerly called Pit Lane, but now known as Rigby’s Court, from the eminent Dr. Rigby, who once lived at its St. Giles’s end; and Willow Lane, noteworthy for having for a time been the residence of the Rev. Francis Blomefield, the Norfolk historian, and of George Henry Borrow, the celebrated writer.

The principal Public Buildings are

The Church,

The Church Schools, built in 1862,

The Roman Catholic Chapel, erected in 1828, and

The Volunteer Drill Hall, erected in 1865–6.

Until quite recently the City Prison stood immediately outside the Gate of St. Giles; but the site of this prison is now occupied by the Roman Catholic Church, now in process of erection.

In earlier times a Leper-house existed just beyond the gate.

Also until recently there existed just beyond the gate a series of remarkable and ancient chalk vaults, or excavations. They are described by Mr. Woodward (“Archæologia” vol. xxiij., p. 411), who showed a plan of them made by John Bond in 1571. Woodward thinks they were galleries made to obtain the chalk flints for building purposes, whilst Mr. Rye says “they were probably worked by the masons of the Castle and Cathedral for the sake of the chalk.” They are now filled up.

The City Wall, built between 1294 and 1319, surrounded the outer and western margin of this parish; and St. Giles’s Gateway, the “Porte de Newport,” or Gate of Newport, stood at the western end of St. Giles’s Street. Over this gate, at one time, lived an hermit. It was pulled down in 1792. In 1867 the greater portion of this part of the City Wall was also taken down; only a small portion near the southern end of Chapel Field, with one of the towers, being left standing. A photograph of this remnant is given in my book on St. Giles’s parish; as well as views of the Gateway as it existed in 1720 and 1792. The latter were sketched by the Ninhams, and published by Mr. Fitch in his work on the Gates of Norwich.

Chapel Field, whose history is so strongly interwoven with that of Norwich, lies on the southern side of St. Giles’s. It takes its name from a Chapel of St. Mary, which formerly stood where now is the building used as a High School for Girls. More than half of it lies in this parish (4·790 acres out of a total of 8·994 acres). It was formerly known as Chapel Field Croft; and its ancient owners are stated by Blomefield to have been the Prior of Buckenham, the Prioress of Carhowe, and the Dean and College of the Chapel in the Fields. But it appears to have been acquired by the City during the sixteenth century, after the dissolution of the monasteries. Chapel Field was at one time a sort of Campus Martius of the city, and was used for the musters and training of the local trained bands, as well as for military reviews. After its acquirement by the Corporation, the Field was for a long time usually let out on lease.

In 1707 it was first railed in. In 1746 its main avenues of trees were planted by Sir Thomas Churchman. In 1792 a large portion of it was used for the construction of the reservoir of the old Norwich Waterworks. In later times it has been used for the drilling of Militia or Volunteers; as well as for Volunteer reviews; also for the holding of fêtes, flower shows, bicycle meetings, and horse shows. The well-remembered Fisheries Exhibition was held in the Drill Hall in 1881.

In 1866 the Prince and Princess of Wales each planted a Wellingtonia tree in the Field, but these did not flourish, and have been removed. In the same year the Field was enclosed with its present handsome iron palisading, and it has since then been transformed into the delightful Chapel Field Gardens, as we now see them, with their special beauties, and the handsome iron Pavilion in their midst.

The Church of St. Giles, dedicated to the Saint of that name, stands on the north side of Upper St. Giles’s Street; and is a striking object as we pass up the street, as well as from many other points of view. It occupies a commanding position, overlooking much of the surrounding district, and was anciently called St. Giles’s on the Hill.

Blomefield says it was founded by Elwyn the priest, and given by him to the Monks of Norwich, after he had procured an indulgence of twenty days’ pardon for all who should come and offer here on St. Giles’s Day, or within seven days after, and it was rebuilt in the time of Richard II. The chancel, which appears to have been a very long one, was demolished in 1581, and was not rebuilt until the general restoration of the Church in 1866, when it was restored mainly at the cost of the Rev. W. N. Ripley (now Canon Ripley) who was then Incumbent.

The Church is a fine perpendicular flint-work structure. The tower is large and well proportioned. It is battlemented and crowned with a small bell-cot and weather-cock. It is rather more than 113 feet high, and the hill upon which it stands is 85·8 feet above the level of the sea. From its height and conspicuous position, it was selected in 1549 for placing a cresset, for a fire beacon, upon its top. There was formerly a Cross and Image of the Trinity in a niche on the west side of the steeple (Blomefield). It has a clock on its eastern face, and contains eight bells, one of which is rung as a Curfew every evening at eight o’clock, as has been the case for more than four hundred years, in accordance with a benefaction of one John Colton, in 1457.

The Belfry Chamber contains five large steeple-boards, with many names of ringers.

The Porch has a fine groined vault, with fan tracery, and a rich parapet and cornice.

Kirkpatrick (1712) says of it: “There is a neat porch of freestone on the south side of the Church for entrance, with a chamber above it. On each side of the window, which is in the front, is a niche (with) spired top. On each side of the arch of the door, cut in stone, is a cherub with an escocheon before him. That on the east side has two pastoral staffs. On the (west) a Pall, and at the top of the porch a border of carved work whereon you see the letter G of the antient form with a crown upon it and an escocheon with vine branch of various small ones denoting St. Giles, to whom dedicated.” (These three niches are now empty.) “On the north side of Church there is no porch, but only a door opposite to that of the south.” (This doorway no longer exists.)

The Church itself consists of new Chancel, Nave, and North and South Aisles. The whole building is about 120 feet long, and the nave with its aisles is 48 feet across. The roof is of good open woodwork, supported by “Angels bearing shields, emblazoned with the Arms of England, France, and Castile” (Bayne). And Taylor says the Arms of Norwich Priory are (or were) seen in this roof. The columns supporting it are light and elegant. They are four in number, with a pilaster at each end, and they divide the nave from the aisles. The clerestory windows have been modernised. They are five in number, and closely correspond to the larger windows in the walls of the north and south aisles. Of these there are five in the north side, and four (and the porch) on the south side.

Blomefield says that “In the west end of the south aisle there was formerly a chapel, altar, and image of St. Catharine, with a light burning before it; and against one of the pillars there was a famous rood called the Brown-rood. There was a Gild of St. Mary kept before the altar of the Virgin of Pity. The west window in the north aisle was adorned with the history of Our Lord’s passion; and there were lights burning before the images of St. Mary, St. John Baptist, St. Christopher, St. Unkumber, and St. Wilegesartis; besides those that continually burned before the Holy-rood, or cross, the Holy Sepulchre, and the Sacrament.”

Mr. Hudson says that S. Uncumber and S. Wilegesartis, or Wylgefort, were the same person, and in the St. Peter Mountergate Parish Magazine for February of this year (1891) he has thus briefly given her history: “She was a beautiful maiden who was ordered to marry a man to whom she had a great aversion. While she was at her wits’ end to know how to avoid her fate, she was delighted to discover that in the course of a few hours she had become adorned with a full-grown and very ugly black beard. This, of course, disposed of the gentleman. Wylgefort lived to be a happy old maid, and when she died was honoured as a Saint.. She was thought to have some special power to uncumber (i. e. disencumber, make free) discontented wives from disagreeable husbands. Hence her popular name.”

The remains of a colossal fresco painting of St. Christopher and two consecration crosses were discovered on the wall of the north aisle in 1723.

At the lower end of the Church stands an ancient stone Font; the upper part, or basin, evidently of much older date than the base, which consists of a pedestal and two steps. The outer part of the basin has eight facets, carved with shields and flowers, and below these are eight cherubs’ heads, with flowers between. The pedestal is carved out on its sides into niches, having cusped tracery heads. There was formerly a cover, which has been lost. Standing within the large basin is a small leaden vessel and cover, a rough miniature copy of the font itself, made about fifty years ago by Mr. Culyer, then parish clerk.

The Communion Plate ¹⁴ consists of six pieces, silver gilt, and presented by Robert Snell in 1738, and of two brass bowls, presented by Mr. John Gurney in 1869.

The reading desk and pulpit, the organ, the oak fittings, and the vestry room were all added in 1866, when the whole Church was restored, and the Chancel rebuilt.¹⁵ The building is thoroughly heated by hot water. The Communion rail was added about five years ago.

The Church contains several monuments, besides mural tablets and inscribed stones. The principal of the former are those of

Adrian Payne, 1686, the founder of Payne’s Charity.

Robert Snell, 1738, who gave the Communion Plate.

Alderman Churchman, 1742.

Dr. Offley, 1767.

Sir Thomas Churchman, 1781.

Dr. John Beevor, 1815.

The Stannard Family, 1838.

Slabs to the memory of Henry Crossgrove, printer, 1744, who published the first Norwich newspaper in 1706; and to Elizabeth, wife of Colonel Cobbe, of Sandringham Hall, 1698, may also be mentioned.

There are several brasses, the two principal represent Robert Baxter, Mayor of Norwich in 1424 and 1429, with his wife; and Richard Purdaunce, Mayor 1422 and 1433, with his wife. Both of these are figured in Cotman’s “Brasses of Norfolk.”

Other and smaller brasses are inscribed with the names of John Smith, Elizabeth Bedingfield, Margaret Landysdale, Thomas Hervey, and Rachel Spendlove.

The Room over the Porch contains some church standards of former St. Giles’s Mayors; also a dilapidated ‘Parish Umbrella’; and the parish ‘Watchman’s Crake,’ or rattle.

The Parish Registers date from 1538, and are very perfect. The Burial Register shows distinct evidence of the presence of unusual mortality in some of the well-known pestilence years. The first part contains a very remarkable illustrated dedication.

The Churchyard was altered and enclosed with a wall and iron railing in 1866–7. Taylor says that a Hermitage formerly existed in its south-west corner.

There are several and important parish Charities; their proceeds being partly for Church purposes, and partly for the benefit of poor parishioners.

The incumbency has an endowment of about £70 a year. It was formerly a Perpetual Curacy, and is now a Vicarage. It is in the gift of the Dean and Chapter. A vicarage house for the minister has been purchased quite recently.