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Instead of travelling over the heavy ice towards Smorgrautberget, Sverdrup kept to the east shore, and then steered straight across Greely Fiord to Blaafjeld, in the south of Grant Land. They kept to the east side of a pressure-ridge which stretched straight across the fiord, and seemed to be the boundary between the fast ice of the previous year on Greely Fiord and the drift-ice outside.

When near land, the ice became heavy, and it was with great difficulty that advance could be made. West of Blaafjeld they passed into a fiord where a large number of hares were seen. It was the pairing season, and they were scampering about in all directions. Sverdrup supposed they had lost their heads from love, and he slyly remarks that this is a thing which may happen to others besides hares. The fiord was named “Harefiord.”

On 30th April they set off from the headland on the west side of the fiord. In the evening they camped near the most westerly foreland they had seen the previous year from Smorgrautberget. Next day they reached another fiord and entered it for a short distance, but as they were anxious to ascertain the extent of land to the west they did not venture to its head. Next day the land trended about due north, and when the weather cleared land was seen to the north-west, and they recognised they were in a bay. A straight line was made for the part farthest off, which was reached on the 6th May. Sverdrup here ascended a height, and found that he was on an island separated by a narrow sound from the land in the east. From a point about 3 miles north of the camp, the land turned to the north-east. North and west of this land, only sea could be made out. To the south was Axel Heiberg Land. Sverdrup built a cairn to mark their farthest north, as he had now decided to return. The latitude was found to be 81° 40′.

In returning, a course was made across Fridtjof Nansen Sound to the northern extremity of Axel Heiberg Land. In passing south they proved that Schei Island was really an island, and not a peninsula. Some polar oxen were shot and the dogs feasted, and the way south was covered at a good speed. When Bay Fiord was reached, they entered it and explored it to its head, where they arrived on 29th May.

The Fram was reached on 16th June, after an absence of seventy-seven days.

Isachsen, Fosheim, and Hassel had left the records as arranged, and had returned to the ship on 18th April; and on the 23rd April, Baumann, Fosheim, and Raanes started for Beechy Island, which was reached on 4th May. It is really not an island, but constitutes the south-west corner of North Devon. The dépôt was found destroyed. The cutter Mary, which had been left there, was a wreck; whether the work of Eskimo or seal-catchers could not be said with certainty. They discovered that Arthur Strait was really a fiord. The return journey was started on the 6th May, and the Fram was reached on the 20th May.

On the 12th April, Isachsen and Bay made a trip to North Devon, and did not return till 21st May. On 25th May, Isachsen and Simmons set out to examine a bed of coal discovered by Baumann, and returned on 9th June.

The work of exploration was now over. The usual summer dredging was begun, and the geologist hunted for fossils. Olsen managed to fall from a pressure-ridge and dislocate his other shoulder. This time it was reduced without the assistance of brandy.

On 20th July the Fram, with steam up, began to leave her winter harbour, but it was not until the 6th August that she entered Jones Sound. On the 10th the Fram was in Baffin’s Bay, heading for the Devil’s Thumb. Godhavn was reached on the 17th August, and here they were well received. They left on the 21st, and although there was a break-down of the engine, Norway was sighted on 18th September. Stavanger was reached on the 19th, and soon they received a most enthusiastic reception wherever they went. The owners of the expedition incurred expenses to the amount of £12,014.

This expedition, although it unfortunately was prevented from carrying out its original plans, did important work. It not only explored the whole of Jones Sound, but discovered the existence of large islands extending toward the north. The fact that no palæocrystic ice was met with in this region makes it highly probable that land exists still farther to the north.²

CHAPTER XII
ITALIAN EXPEDITION (1899−1900)

Between the discovery of Franz-Josef Land by the Austro-Hungarian Expedition and the expedition of the Duke of the Abruzzi a good deal of exploration had taken place. In 1880 and 1881, Leigh Smith in his yacht Eira reached Franz-Josef Land without much difficulty, and surveyed the coast up to Cape Lofley. The Eira, when leaving for the second time, was crushed by the ice near Cape Flora, and sank. The crew built a wretched hovel in which they passed the winter. In the following summer they sailed in their boats to Novaya Zemlya, where they were taken on board a ship which had been sent to their assistance.

In 1894, Jackson, in the Windward, built a station at Cape Flora, on Northbrook Island, and remained there till the autumn of 1897. He made three expeditions with sledges. In the first two he was prevented from advancing towards the north by stretches of open sea. He reached 81° 20′. In the third journey he went towards the west, making the circuit of Alexander Land. He named the most westerly point of the group “Cape Mary Harmsworth.” The sea to the north was called “Queen Victoria Sea.”

In 1898, Wellman in the Fridtjof landed at Cape Tegethoff, and after making some discoveries in the eastern part of Franz-Josef Land, returned home next year in the Capella.

The Duke of the Abruzzi left Christiania on board the Polar Star on 12th June 1899. It was his intention to proceed to Emperor Franz-Josef Land and attempt from there to reach the North Pole.

The expedition was composed of eleven Italians and nine Norwegians. The ship was a whaler, and had been previously named the Jason. It had been commanded by Captain Evensen, who retained the command by being appointed captain of the Polar Star.

The second in command of the expedition was Umberto Cagni, captain in the Italian Navy.

Archangel was reached on 30th June. Here 121 dogs were obtained. They had been brought by Trontheim, who was also employed by Nansen.

Archangel was left on 13th July; the first ice was met on the 17th, and Northbrook Island was sighted on the 20th July.

The five huts left by Jackson at Cape Flora were visited, and a dépôt of provisions for eight months was landed, in addition to five tons of coal.

Cape Flora was left on 26th July, and an attempt was made to pass to the north through Nightingale Sound, but the passage was blocked by ice. Next an attempt was made to double Cape Mary Harmsworth, but this also ended in failure.

Nightingale Sound was again entered on the 28th July, but in the evening of this day the ship was surrounded by ice-fields, and had to remain near the northern extremity of Bruce Island three days. On the 1st August an attempt was made to bore the ice, but the ship advanced only about 300 yards. Some channels formed on the 3rd and allowed some progress. On the 5th the whaler Capella, with Wellman’s party, was sighted near Scott Keltie Island, and Wellman and three of his companions visited the ship.

From this point the Polar Star had open water until it reached Maria-Elizabeth Island, but here it was stopped by thick ice ahead and foggy weather. When the fog cleared, a passage was found to the east of the island, and the Polar Star advanced rapidly northwards, and reached 82° 4′ to the north-west of Prince Rudolf Island. The Alert reached 82° 27′, the Polaris attained 82° 11′, so that the Polar Star took third place among the ships which had been navigated towards the Pole. The Fram reached a much higher latitude, but it was by means of the drift. From the farthest north reached by the Polar Star the horizon was carefully observed, but no trace could be found of Petermann Land and King Oscar Land, which Payer thought he sighted from Cape Fligely. It was found that the latitude of this cape was 81° 50′ 43″, and not 82° 5′, as given by Payer.

The Polar Star was now steered towards the south-east to Teplitz Bay, the most northern bay of Franz-Josef Land, in latitude 81° 47′, where it went into winter quarters. The bay did not provide a very safe anchorage, but its position far to the north made it of great importance for the contemplated sledge-expeditions.

On the 27th August the Polar Star was driven by the pressure of the ice against the ice fixed to the coast, and heeled over about 13 degrees. When the pressure ceased, she remained in the same position. On the 7th September the ice pressure again became severe, and the ship was so seriously damaged that it had to be abandoned.

Steps were at once taken to have the stores landed, and two large field-tents were erected on the shore to serve as winter quarters. Outside these a second tent was formed to cover the two field-tents, and a third tent covered the whole.

A space between the two inner field-tents was occupied on one side by the kitchen, and on the other by bags and cases containing clothing. Between the field-tents and the second tent tins of milk were built in the form of a wall, and between the second and third tents were stored the provisions likely to be consumed during the winter.

After all these preparations had been completed, an attempt was made to repair the damaged ship, which still kept its position heeled over in the ice. The water which had leaked into the ship was pumped out, and as far as possible the damaged parts were repaired with tarpaulin and boards.

During the winter preparations were made for the long sledge-journey in the spring. On the 23rd December the Duke of the Abruzzi went out with some of his party in order to train the dogs to draw sledges. They drove to the bottom of the bay, and then turned back. On the return journey a storm came on, and the way was lost. Instead of keeping on the ice of the bay, they wandered unknowingly up on the island, and were only made aware of the fact when two sledges with their dogs, as well as the Duke and Captain Cagni, fell from the glacier down to the bay, a height of some 23 feet. Fortunately, neither was hurt. Owing to the drifting snow and the darkness, great difficulty was experienced in regaining the tent. When it was reached, it was found that several of the party were frost-bitten. The Duke and Captain Cagni had suffered most. The circulation in the terminal joints of two of the Duke’s fingers of the left hand could not be restored.

Christmas and the beginning of the New Year were celebrated with the utmost enthusiasm. Fireworks consisting of rockets and fiery fountains, salutes from the small gun, and bonfires of wood steeped in petroleum, all united to form a striking scene in a land far removed from civilisation.

With the beginning of the New Year the preparations for the sledge-journey received most attention. The daily ration was fixed at 2 lb. 12 oz. 9 dr., which was about 3 oz. more than the weight used by Nares and Greely. It consisted of biscuit, tinned meat, pemmican, butter, milk, Liebig’s extract, desiccated vegetables, Italian paste, sugar, salt, coffee, tea, and onions.

The lamps used were made on the Primus system, and the cooking-stove was that designed by Nansen. The quantity of petroleum was fixed at 3 oz. 8 dr. for each man daily. The dog’s ration of pemmican was 1 lb. 1 oz. 10 dr.

The expedition carried flat-bottomed kayaks. These had a framework of thin rods over which canvas was stretched. Their greatest length was 11 ft. 7 in., their width 2 ft. 6 in., and their height 11 in. They were provided with a small sail, a pump to empty out water, and a pair of oars with their rowlocks.

The sledges were 11 ft. 5 in. long, 1 ft. 6 in. wide, and 6½ inches high. The runners were slightly convex, so as to turn easily; they were shod with white metal, and wooden runners were strapped beneath them. The foremost ends of the runners were joined by a bow, to which the trace was attached, and no nails were used. Each sledge was provided with a small steel rope, with as many rings as there were dogs to tie them to, at a distance of 4½ feet from each other.

On 18th January 1900 the Duke had nearly all the first joint of the middle finger of his left hand amputated, and ten days later a part of the fourth finger. This rendered him quite unable to take any part in the sledge-expedition, and Captain Cagni was given the command of it.

This expedition set out on 19th February. As open water reached the mouth of the bay, it was found necessary to haul the sledges overland to a point north of Cape Germania. With thirteen sledges drawn by 108 dogs, the ice-pack was reached on the 21st February. During the first night on the ice the temperature reached 45.4° F. below zero, and on 23rd February it reached 61.6° F. below zero. Many of the party were frost-bitten, and few could sleep. This extreme temperature was more than they could stand, and Captain Cagni wisely decided to return to Teplitz Bay, which was reached on the night of the 23rd.

The expedition left again on the 11th March. During the interval various alterations had been made. It was found necessary to diminish the loads so as to avoid damage to the sledges when crossing the broken and difficult ice near the island. The allowance of petroleum was increased to 6 oz. 5 dr. for each man. Cagni had also observed that it would be necessary to always send forward at least two men to prepare the way for the sledges. He therefore decided to take an additional man.

The expedition consisted of three detachments. One was composed of four men, and the other two of three men each. The four men were to accompany the party twelve days, and then return. The provisions were so divided that this party carried the whole of the rations for the ten men during the twelve days, and also the rations for their own return. The second detachment carried the rations to last the remainder other twelve days and their own return. According to this arrangement, the third or advance party would not begin on their own rations until the twenty-fifth day, when the second detachment would return.

The entire camp equipment and the clothing for the three detachments amounted to 978 lb. 13 oz. 8 dr., or nearly 100 lb. per man. The weight to be carried amounted to the remarkable total of 6718 lb. 9 oz. 13 dr., or almost exactly 3 tons. Twelve sledges were used, so that the average weight for each was 5 cwt. The dogs numbered 103.

On the second departure the expedition was able to travel out of the bay without having first to drag the sledges overland. On the first day the temperature was 27.4° F. below zero. An auxiliary detachment accompanied the party two days.

At first, Captain Cagni set out towards the west, so as to get away from land, but on the second day he tended a little east of north, so as to allow for the probable drift towards the west. During the night of the 13th March the temperature fell to 45.4° F. below zero. On the 12th an advance of 7 miles was made; on the 13th, about 10 miles; but on the 14th the ice-axes had frequently to be used to make a road, and only 3½ miles were covered.

For some days the temperature kept remarkably low. On the morning of the 16th it reached 58° F. below zero. On the 19th it rose to 16.6° F. below zero, but on the 21st it again fell to 36.4° F. below zero.

On the 21st March, Cagni decided to take three men with him in the third or advance detachment. He found it necessary to send two men forward to prepare the way for the sledges. With three men in the detachment, only one would be left to look after the most of the dogs and sledges. He therefore decided to send back three men in the first detachment, instead of four. To meet the extra rations required for the additional man, he intended to send back the first detachment two days, and the second detachment four days earlier than originally intended.

The first detachment, composed of Lieutenant Querini, the guide Ollier, and the engineer Stökken, was sent back on the 23rd March. At this time the expedition was about 45 miles distant from the island which had been seen two days previously. Nothing more was ever heard of this detachment. The Duke came to the conclusion that an accident must have happened. It is quite possible, however, if not probable, that the party was drifted so far out of the proper course that the island could not be reached before all the food had been consumed. It will be seen that the third detachment failed to make headway against this drift, and was saved only by giving up the attempt to reach Prince Rudolf Island, and by making its way towards the islands in the south.

Some of the dogs caused a great deal of trouble. One had deserted on two occasions. It was a fine, strong animal, and it would have been a pity to kill it. The doctor undertook to tame it and prevent it deserting. He secured it with two chains and a steel-wire rope. In spite of this, it was found trying to escape, and the doctor gave it a severe beating. During the night the dog broke the two chains, and in some incredible way managed to get free. As if to be revenged on its tamer, it made a hole in the doctor’s tent and stole all the butter which was to serve for the detachment’s breakfast.

Towards the end of March the temperature was still very low, and Captain Cagni suffered greatly from one of his forefingers which had already been twice frost-bitten. The sleeping-bag slowly filled with snow formed by the frozen moisture of the breath. During the night their bodies gradually thawed this snow, and they rose in a cold bath in the morning. Soon after getting up, the moisture froze again into a mass of ice. On 27th and 28th March the temperature was more than 40° F. below zero.

On the 28th March, Captain Cagni was able to take an observation for latitude, and was astonished to find that it was only 83°. He had calculated that it ought to be about 83° 50′. The drift to the south must therefore have been considerable.

On 31st March the second detachment, composed of Dr. Cavalli, Cardenti, and Savoie, was sent back. It received rations for eighteen days, and had twenty-four dogs. Considerable difficulties were met with on the return journey, but the detachment reached the coast of the island on the 17th April. Here a broad channel of water prevented them from reaching land. A kayak was repaired, and Cardenti was sent in it across the channel. He reached the glacier face, but it took him two hours to ascend to the top by making steps with his ice-axe in a crevasse. He then was unable to find his way to the tent in Teplitz Bay. After wandering about on the island all night, he saw the tent when daylight dawned. A boat was at once dispatched to bring the doctor and his companion.

Meanwhile the party in Teplitz Bay had been anxiously awaiting the arrival of the first detachment. When the second arrived and reported that the first had left seven days before them, all hope was practically given up, although a relief party was sent out to make a search in the neighbourhood of the islands discovered by Nansen.

Cagni and his three companions set out after the departure of the second detachment. They had forty-nine dogs and six sledges. The load on each sledge varied from 410 to 485 lb. On the first day they made a splendid march of about 18 miles. With the beginning of April the temperature rose, and life became less miserable, but the higher temperature was accompanied by a strong wind. On the 3rd and 4th April this high wind and snow-drift confined the party to their tent. They set out again on the 5th, but found great movement going on in the ice. Channels were constantly opening and closing, and pressure-ridges were being formed all around. One of the sledges broke through the ice, and was dragged out with difficulty.

It was part of the scheme of the expedition to gradually kill a certain number of the dogs in order to assist in feeding the others. At first none of the dogs cared to eat the flesh; later the few which ate it waited till it was frozen; but ultimately the whole of the survivors devoured it with even more greediness than pemmican, and while it was still warm.

On the 7th April the latitude was found to be 83° 54′. This was near the latitude calculated by Cagni, so that the drift to the south had almost ceased. The recent tracks of two bears were seen on this date. On the 8th April channels were crossed by means of bridges built of large blocks of ice detached from the hummocks.

Cagni was still suffering greatly from his frost-bitten forefinger, which the doctor had generously promised to amputate when Cagni returned to Teplitz Bay. On the 12th April a huge pressure-ridge, which Cagni estimated to be from 36 to 45 feet in height, was seen to form about 100 yards from the camp. On this day they travelled a distance estimated at 22 miles. Next day one of the guides suddenly broke through the ice, and would have been lost but for the assistance of his companion. Cagni took half a bath shortly afterwards, and the second guide slipped into the water with one leg. In spite of these difficulties, the day’s march was reckoned at 13 miles. These two days, however, greatly exhausted the dogs, and on the following day only 5 miles were covered.

On the 15th April a snowstorm confined them to the tent. Cagni’s finger had kept him awake two nights, and he took advantage of the delay to unbandage it and remove with forceps some of the dead flesh. On this day a hole was burnt through one of the two saucepans. This was looked upon as a serious accident, but it occurred to one of the guides to use the cover as a second bottom, and this fortunately answered fairly well. The storm lasted till the afternoon of the 17th April. This was the date originally fixed for the return, but Cagni decided to still push on. At midday on the 21st April the latitude was found to be 85° 29′. This gave great encouragement, and determined Cagni to make an effort to break Nansen’s record. On the 22nd the latitude was 85° 48′; on the 23rd it was 86° 4′; and on the 24th it was 86° 18′.

Cagni had now beaten Nansen’s record of 86° 14′, but he decided to still push on. About six o’clock they were stopped by a large channel, and here it was decided to return. The latitude was found to be the record one of 86° 34′. Great praise is due to Cagni for his pluck and determination under difficulties which would have made most men give up in despair. Coming from a country which enjoys a warm climate, the severe temperatures must have caused the party to suffer greatly, but added to this in Cagni’s case was the torture he had to undergo from his mortifying finger.

The return journey was begun on the 25th with four sledges, thirty-four dogs, provisions for thirty days, 200 rations of pemmican for the men and 300 rations for the dogs. On the first day’s march the party covered the remarkable distance of 29 miles. The outward track assisted greatly on the return. The progress at first was very good; in four days the party advanced 1 degree towards the south.

On the 2nd May, Cagni improved the condition of his finger, which had again pained him greatly. The glands in the armpit were also inflamed. When the finger was unbandaged, it was found to be greatly swollen. With a lancet in his left hand, Cagni opened the swelling and gave outlet to a large quantity of matter. After taking away a covering of dead flesh, a piece of bone was found sticking out of the wound. Cagni had only scissors to work with, but with these he managed to cut off the projection. The whole proceeding occupied him fully two hours. His courage was beyond praise.

On the 8th May the latitude was found to be 83° 42′. On this date the temperature had risen to freezing-point. On the 10th, Cagni discovered that he had drifted about 8 degrees of longitude to the west of Teplitz Bay. In the latitude he was in this represented about 57 geographical miles. He therefore steered a course more to the east. In spite of this new direction, Cagni found two days later that he was still farther to the west. He now hesitated to steer more to the east in case his chronometers had been going more slowly, due to the rise in temperature. This decision had an important bearing on the future trials of the party.

On the 18th May it was found that though the party had been travelling nine days towards the south-east, they were still on the same meridian. Channels now became so frequent that the course was difficult to keep, and the weather became stormy and foggy. On the 23rd May latitude 82° 1′ was reached, so that the party was now nearly on a level with the northern part of Prince Rudolf Island. The drift was, however, so great that during the next six days only about 10 miles were covered towards the island. Provisions were now running short, and both the physical and mental condition of the men began to deteriorate. According to the longitude, they were still 6 degrees west of Teplitz Bay.

It now became necessary to ferry the sledges and dogs across the channels on large pieces of ice, and progress became very slow. After struggling desperately towards the east, it was found on the 7th June that they were farther to the west than on the 1st of the month. The week’s toil had therefore been in vain. This made Cagni come to the wise decision to give up fighting against the drift, and to proceed southwards, where he would probably reach islands from which he would have a better chance of reaching Prince Rudolf Island.

On the second day after setting out to the south, land was sighted, and turned out to be Harley Island. On the 10th the party found it necessary to begin eating dog’s flesh. The coast of Harley Island was reached on 13th June, but still they kept to the ice, and followed the coast until they reached the north-west extremity of the island. They then steered for Ommaney Island, where they arrived at midnight on the 13th. This island was crossed, but on attempting to leave it the ice was found impracticable, and twice the party were forced to retrace their steps. The third attempt was successful, after great labour among moving ice. A broad channel was found open along Karl Alexander Land, and Cagni therefore steered a course in the direction of Cape Germania.

When they awoke on the morning of the 20th June, they found they were afloat on a floe about 60 yards in diameter. Here they had to remain two days at the mercy of the wind. Prince Rudolf Island was reached on the 23rd June, and the party arrived at the tent at Teplitz Bay on the same date.

This sledge-journey by Cagni is the longest ever made over the ice of the Arctic Ocean before that of Dr. Cook. Starting from a comparatively low latitude, he yet was able to surpass the record made by Nansen. He had, of course, advantages which Nansen did not possess: he had a base to fall back upon, and he had the assistance of other two detachments; but on the other hand he had to start from a much lower latitude. The achievement of the Italians is one of which any country might be proud.

Steps were now taken to free the ship from the ice, which was from 10 feet to 18 feet thick. Holes were drilled in this ice along one side of the ship, and into these holes guncotton was placed and exploded. All their efforts at first were of little avail, but they eventually succeeded in righting the ship. A channel 180 yards long had next to be blasted in order to get the ship out of the bay. In forming this channel nearly all the explosives were exhausted when it was completed on 10th August. The provisions and equipment were now put on board, and everything being ready on 16th August, the Polar Star, which was still seaworthy, left Teplitz Bay on the return journey.

Cape Flora was reached on 31st August, after considerable difficulties with the ice on the passage south. There was still a faint hope that the missing detachment might be here, but no trace of it was found. As a final precaution, provisions sufficient for twenty men during eight months were left here; a still larger quantity had been left at Teplitz Bay.

On the 2nd September the Polar Star escaped from the drift-ice; on the 5th the rugged mountains of Norway were in view, and Tromsö was reached on the 6th.

Although this expedition added no new land to our maps, the results were important. It proved that a ship could be taken to the northern part of Franz-Josef Archipelago, and that a properly equipped sledge-expedition could travel a distance of 5° of latitude over the ice of the Arctic Ocean.

Franz-Josef Archipelago has since been visited by two Polar expeditions known as the “Ziegler Expeditions,” but these have added little to our previous knowledge.